Lady Victoria Eclectic Pagan's blog: "Myth and Lore of Trees"

The Elder tree (Sambucus nigra) is one of the sacred trees of Wicca and Witchcraft and represents the thirteenth month on the Celtic Tree Calendar. The thirteenth month was composed of just three days, the last two days of October being the end of the old Celtic year, leading into the 1st of November and the start of the New Year. Today it is celebrated as the pagan festival of ‘Samhain’, more commonly known as ‘Halloween’. The word Elder is derived from an old Anglo-Saxon word ‘aeld’ meaning fire, an association given to the Elder because of its use. The soft pith of an Elder branch pushes out easily and the tubes formed were used as pipes for blowing up fires, later Elder bellows were made for same effect. From this followed the folk names Pipe-Tree, Bore-tree or Bour-tree, the latter still being used Scotland is traceable to the Anglo-Saxon form Burtre. Other early names include Eldrun or Ellhorn, and then later in the fourteenth century it became known as Hyldor or Hyllantree. In Germany, it was known as Hollunder. The botanical name for the Elder - ‘Sambucus’ occurs in the writings of Pliny and other ancient writers. Adopted from the Greek word ‘Sambuca’, a musical instrument much favored and used by the Romans, it is thought that Elder wood was used in its construction due its hardness. The difficulty in accepting this is that the Sambuca was a stringed instrument, while anything made from Elder would most likely have been a wind instrument, something in the nature of Panpipes, a Flute or even a Sackbut, the renaissance equivalent to the modern trombone. Pliny also records the belief held by country folk that the shrillest pipes and the most sonorous horns were made from Elder trees grown in areas away from human habitation and away from the sound of a cocks-crow. Popguns and whistles had long been made from the Elder, which Pliny notes were manufactures many centuries old. Culpepper another old master declared: “It is needless to write any description of the Elder, since every boy that plays with a pop-gun will not mistake it for any another tree. In modern time’s, Italian peasants construct a simple musical pipe from the Elder called a ‘Sampogna’. In the summer with its flat-topped masses of fragrant white blossoms, followed later in autumn by drooping bunches of purple-black berries; the Elder is a familiar and much loved sight in the English countryside. It grows in abundance with a minimum of soil and can be found in wastelands, woods, hedgerows and gardens. Most commonly the Elder grows as a shrub, bush or small tree, and rarely exceeds nine meters (30ft) in height. Wild in nature the Elder re-grows damaged branches with ease and can root rapidly from any of its parts. Cuttings or twigs broken of the tree and stuck in the ground will soon produce masses of fruit. A peculiarity of the Elder is its method of growth. At the base of a sapling, stems appear each growing upright, then after awhile as if under weight they bend over creating a curve on top of which a new bud appears. From this bud a new stem grows upright for a while until it too bends over and so its growth continues. The Elder’s trunk therefore is not formed by one upwardly growing mass like the trunks of other trees, but is a patchwork mess of curving drooping stems. This is why the Elder is neither elegant nor reaches any great height. Its stems are sometimes reach nearly two feet in diameter, a size indicating several more score of years, today however we are lucky to be able to find one growing half that size. The bark of the old wood is rough, corky and a light brownish-grey in color, its branches are smoother and its twigs a pleasing bright green but pot-marked with small brownish spots caused by the tree’s lenticels, the pores through which the tree breathes. The wood of the main stem is hard and heavy and that of old trees white with a fine close grain. It is easy to cut and polishes well, and was often used for making butchers skewers or small toys for children. Other uses include shoemakers' pegs and fishing rods, needles for weaving nets and the making of combs. Mathematical instruments and several different musical instruments were made of Elder. The pith from its branches was sliced and used as floats for fishing, and that of the younger stems being exceedingly light, was cut into balls and used for electrical experiments. In medicine, it was used to hold small objects for microscopic sectioning. The leaves of the Elder consist of five leaflets attached to a central stalk sitting opposite each other on its twigs or branches. To ensure its leafing capacity throughout the year, beneath its main leaf-buds the Elder produces a second smaller bud in reserve, but this will only open if the main leaves are lost due to inclement weather, and can remain dormant for a couple of years until needed. Once the leaves have formed the tree’s flower buds then grow and by June the tree is awash with thousands of tiny white flowers. The flowers all look alike and consist of five creamy white petals on the back of which are five green sepals forming a star. In between each petal there are five yellow stamens surrounding a cream colored ovary containing a three lobed stigma. To allow easy cross-fertilization by flies and other insects attracted by the flowers fragrance, the stamens and stigmas mature at the same time. Clusters of the flowers grow all at the same level facing the sky and when viewed from underneath they resemble many tiny star-spoked umbrellas. The flowers however have a narcotic perfume that is suggestive of death, and the odor of its foliage is so strong and unpleasant that Shakespeare in his “Cymbeline” used it symbolically of woe when speaking of "the stinking Elder grief." Myths and Folklore There is much folklore and superstition talked about the Elder, much of it passed down through the mythology of the ancients. One medieval belief as Shakespeare tells in ‘Love's Labour Lost’, is that of the traitor Apostle ‘Judas’ hanged himself on an Elder tree. Reference to this myth is found as far back in English literature as Langland's – ‘Vision of Piers Plowman’ written during the middle of the fourteenth century: “Judas he japed with Jewen silver And sithen an eller hanged hymselve”' Why the Elder should have been selected as his gallows is somewhat puzzling considering the small size of the tree, but Sir John Mandeville in his travels written about the same time tells us that he was shown: 'faste by' the Pool of Siloam, the identical 'Tree of Eldre that Judas henge himself upon, for despeyr that he hadde, when he solde and betrayed oure Lord'. Gerard another writer of note calls the Elder, the ‘Judas-tree’ - 'the tree whereon Judas did hange himselfe'. In most countries, the Elder is intimately connected with magic and witchcraft, and many old folk-tales tell stories of a witch who live in the tree. One such story is about Hylde-Moer, the Elder-tree Mother who lived in the tree to watch over it. Should the tree be cut down and furniture made of its wood, many believed that Hylde-Moer would follow her property and haunt the owners. As the story goes an ignorant woodcutter once cut down an Elder tree to make a cradle for his newborn son, but each time the child was placed in it Hylde-Moer would appear and pull it by the legs, thus allowing the child no peace until it was lifted out. Permission to cut an Elder must always be asked for first, and not until Hylde-Moer has given consent by remaining silence may the tree be cut down. Another old tradition was that the Cross of Calvary was made of it, and an old couplet runs: 'Bour tree - Bour tree: crooked rong Never straight and never strong; Ever bush and never tree Since our Lord was nailed on thee.' Astrologically, Elder people have a tie to the White goddess. They are very similar to Rowan people. They are very musically inclined and gifted. Most Elder people will be water people as well, having water as their element or even associated with their astrological birth sign. They are excellent healers but need to be careful not to use their gifts to sway other people's wills and choices. They can also be excellent seers and seem to be not of their time, but before there time in different circumstances.

The Reed (Cytisus scoparius) is more of a shrub plant than a tree but still considered sacred to Wicca/Witchcraft and was revered by the ancients of long ago. The reed symbolizes Purification, Protection, and Fertility. It also represents established power, wands, rods and scepters made from reeds were carried as symbols of authority. The common reed in England is called Broom and is better known by its folk name “Scotch Broom”. Broom is a densely growing shrub plant indigenous to England and the temperate regions of Europe and northern Asia. It can be being found in abundance on sandy pastures and heaths were it commonly grows wild. In the sandy soils of America due to its proliferation, the broom has been regulated as a “Class B” noxious weed under state law, and is designated for control in most counties of Washington and Oregon where Local, County and State weed control boards have regulations controlling its movement and harvest. The broom is a member of the Leguminosae family, which includes beans, peas, clover, vetch, locust, lupine, acacia and alfalfa. These plants convert nitrogen from air into a form they can use for growth, making them hardy and able to invade and flourish in harsh areas. Broom is also the only native medicinal plant used as an official drug. The Latinized name “Scoparius” is derived from the Latin word “scopa”, meaning “besom” (hence the common folk name broom), and “Cytisus“ is said to be a corruption of the name of the Greek island “Cythnus” where broom once abounded. As a young plant the broom will often spend 2 to 4 years in a grass-like state until it establishes an extensive root system, once established it can grow from 12 to 30 inches a year and attain heights of over 8 feet. Most plants have a single base with many upwardly spreading stems or branches. The stems are bright green, long, straight and slender, but are tough and very flexible. Many of the brooms stems are leafless or have few leaves, those that do develop new leaves by late April, dark green in color they spiral up the plant's stem from its base. The leaves are hairy when young and the lower ones are shortly stalked with small oblong trifoliolate leaflets. The upper leaves near the tips of the stem are sessile, smaller and often reduced to a single leaflet. Most leaves fall off after a frost or during a severe drought. The fragrant flowers of the bloom are about ¾ inch long and range in color from light yellow to orange with crimson wings. The shape of the flower is irregular with a top banner petal, two side wing petals, and two keel petals on the bottom likened to a butterfly. The flowers and are in bloom from April to July and occur on plants as young as 2 years old, growing more abundantly on plants of 4 years old or more. The flowers have a great attraction for bees for while they contain no honey, they hold an abundance of pollen. The flowers are followed by flat oblong seedpods about 1½ - 2 inches long, these are hairy on the edges but smooth on the sides. The pods are brown and nearly black when mature and each contains several seeds. The seeds are oval about ⅛ inch long, dark greenish-brown and have a shiny surface. The pods begin to dry out as the seeds inside mature and starts to warp in different directions, eventually forced open the seeds burst out with a sharp report flinging themselves up to a distance of 4 to 12 feet away. The continuous crackling of the bursting seed-vessels on a hot sunny day is readily noticeable. Because of their hard shells seeds can remain viable in the soil for more than 50 years before they germinate. This long-term viability enables the broom to re-populate areas even after they have been cleared and even when no plants are visible on the site. There are two principle chemicals present in broom, which makes it toxic to both humans and animals; these are “Sparteine” and “Scoparin”. Sparteine is a transparent liquid alkaloid, oily, colorless when fresh and turns brown on exposure. It has an aniline-like odor and a very bitter taste. The amount of Sparteine present depends much upon external conditions, those grown in the shade produce less than those grown in sunny places. Sparteine forms certain salts of which the sulfate is used in medicine (as listed in the British and the United States Pharmacopoeia’s). It occurs in colorless crystals that are readily soluble in water. “Oxysparteine” (formed by the action of acid on Sparteine) is used medicinally as a cardiac stimulant. Scoparin the other principal constituent is a glucoside, occurring in pale-yellow crystals that are colorless and tasteless, soluble in alcohol and hot water. It represents most of the diuretic properties of the broom. The flowers of broom contain volatile oil, fatty matter, wax, chlorophyll, a yellow coloring matter, tannin, mucilage, albumen and lignin. Scoparin and Sparteine is also present in them. Broom also contains a large amount of alkaline and earthy matter, which on incineration yields about 3 per cent of ash containing about 29 per cent of carbonate of potash. Today there are many differing species of broom and the identification and naming of brooms in literature has undergone steady change resulting in considerable confusion. Due to the toxicity of some species it is important to recognize that there are other brooms and that different names for the same plants can be found. There are also a great number of brooms grown for ornamental purposes. Some of the more common brooms are: Portuguese Broom (Cytisus striatus), this is a Scotch broom look-alike except for the seedpods. These are inflated and hairy all over giving the plant the appearance of being covered with pussy willow buds. Its stems are more silvery, but this is difficult to distinguish until after leaves and flowers fall off. French Broom (Genista monspessulana), these are very leafy and retain their leaves the entire year. All its leaves are trifoliolate, whereas Portuguese and Scotch brooms have simple leaves or trifoliolate leaves only on the lower part of the plants. Its flowers are yellow but smaller than those of Scotch broom, and appear well before-in March and April. The stems are finer and not as erect as those of Scotch broom. The Genista species is the one most referred to in ancient texts. Spanish Broom (Spartium junceum), this plant is the most drought-resistant of the broom species. It has coarse thick stems that are round and almost leafless. Its flowers are similar in size to Scotch broom but less numerous. Physical Uses: The broom is such a versatile plant that it has many uses. It is commonly planted on the sides of steep banks were its roots serve to hold the earth together. On some parts of the coast it is one of the first plants to grow on sand-dunes after such has been consolidated on the surface by the interlacing stems of mat grasses and other sand-binding plants. It will flourish within reach of sea spray, and like gorse, broom is a good sheltering plant for seaside growth. Inland it is grown extensively as a shelter for game, and in fresh plantations among more important species of shrubs, to protect them from the wind till fully established. The broom seldom grows large enough to furnish useful wood but when its stems acquire a sufficient size, it is beautifully veined and being very hard provides the cabinetmaker with a most valuable material for veneering. Of old, its most popular use was for making brooms and brushes, and was commonly used for basketwork, especially on the island of Madeira. In the north of England and Scotland it was used for thatching cottages and making fences or screens. The bark of the Scotch broom yields an excellent fiber, which is finer but not so strong as that of the Spanish Broom. The bark is easily separated from the stem or twigs by macerating them in water. This has been done since ancient times, and from its fibers paper and cloth was manufactured. The fibers were also used to make quill-pens as used by the old scribes. The bark contains a considerable amount of tannin, which was used of old for tanning leather. The leaves or young tops yielded a green dye, used of old to color clothing. Myths, Folklore and History: The reed/broom has always been associated with music, for since time began pipes and flutes were made from reeds. In mythology we see a connection to reeds through the panpipes of the Greek god Pan (Roman god Faunus). In legend Pan had a contest with Apollo to determine who could play the most skillful and sweetest music, Pan on his reed pipes or Apollo on his lyre. Pan was judged to be the winner, which Apollo considered an insult. In rage Apollo turned Pan into half a man and half a goat. In art, Pan is often depicted with the legs, horns and beard of goat. To the Greeks Pan was a god of the woodlands, pastures, herds and fertility. Hills, caves, oaks, reeds and tortoises are all sacred to him. In another legend Pan fought with the gods of Olympus during their battle against the Titans, during which he fashioned a giant seashell into a trumpet. Pan raised such a noise with it that the Titans thought they were being attacked by a sea monster and fled in terror. The word “panic” is said to have come from this myth. Pan is thought to be the offspring of Hermes and his cult was centered in Arcadia were he haunted the woodlands, hills and mountains. After sleeping at noon, he would then dance through the woods playing the panpipes. Pan was a lusty leader of satyrs and loved nothing better than chasing nymphs; from this he became associated with Dionysus/Bacchus. Pan’s symbol was the phallus, and of old he was invoked for the fertility of flocks or an abundant hunt. Every region in Greece had its own Pan, who was known by various names, and eventually he came to symbolize the universal god of nature, the Horned God. In folklore the Pied Piper of Hamelin played a magickal tune on a pipe made from reeds, and rid the town of a plague of rats. As the story goes in 1284 the Pied Piper was hired to rid the town of Hamelin of a plague of rats. He walked through the streets playing a magickal tune on his pipe, and on hearing the music all the rats followed him. The piper led the rats all the way to the banks of the river Weser, where all the rats fell in and were drowned. Although the town council had agreed to pay the piper, they changed their minds once the task was done and refused to pay him. In retaliation the piper played a different tune on his pipe and again set off through the streets of the town. This time on hearing the music all the children of the town started to follow. The piper led the children out of the town and into the foothills of the mountains, there a door in the side of the mountain opened and the piper and all the children vanished. After their disappearance the spirits of the piper and children haunted the town of Hamelin. From this story the magickal qualities of the reed and music can be discerned. In magic the reed is associated with spells, divination and the exorcism of poltergeist. Throughout history the reed/broom has featured as a heraldic device, and was adopted at a very early period as the badge of Brittany. Geoffrey the 5th count of Anjou thrust it into his helmet at the moment of going into battle so that his troops might see and follow him. As he plucked it from a steep bank which its roots had knitted together, he is reputed to have said: “This golden plant rooted firmly amid rock, yet upholding what is ready to fall, shall be my cognizance. I will maintain it on the field, in the tourney and in the court of justice”. From Geoffrey of Anjou and his wife the empress Matilda, daughter of the English king Henry I, the Plantagenet royal dynasty began. However, the name Plantagenet was not hereditary and is thought to have originated from his nickname, given after the sprig of broom he wore in his hat or to his practice of planting brooms to improve his hunting covers. The old Medieval Latin name for broom was Planta genista; from which it is thought Plantagenet was derived. The broom is depicted on the Great Seal of Richard I, this being its first official heraldic appearance in England. Some historians differ on the naming of Kings as Plantagenet, some giving the name to Count Geoffrey's descendants beginning with Edward I. Richard Plantagenet or Richard 3rd Duke of York was the first to use the surname officially when he claimed the throne in 1460. The Plantagenet dynasty ended when the last legitimate male heir, Edward Earl of Warwick was executed in 1499. Another origin is claimed for the heraldic use of the broom in Brittany, in that a prince of Anjou assassinated his brother and seized his kingdom. Overcome by remorse he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in expiation of his crime. Every night on the journey he scourged himself with a brush of “genets” or “genista”, and adopted the plant as his badge in perpetual memory of his repentance. St. Louis of France continued the heraldic use of the broom as a symbol of chivalry and honor, and on the occasion of his marriage in the year 1234 he founded a special order called the Colle de Genet. The collar of the order was decorated alternately of the fleur-de-lis of France and a broom-flower. His bodyguard of a hundred nobles also wore on their coats a broom-flower emblem with the motto “Exaltat humiles” and “He exalteth the lowly”. The order was held in high esteem and to be bestowed with it was regarded as a great honor. King Richard II was honored with it, and a broom plant with open empty pods can be seen ornamentally decorating his tomb in Westminster Abbey. In 1368 Charles V of France bestowed the insignia of the broom pod on his favorite chamberlain, and in 1389 Charles VI gave the same decoration to his kinsmen. In Scotland the broom is the badge of the Forbes and according to Scottish lore, “it was the bonny broom which the Scottish clan of Forbes wore in their bonnets when they wished to arouse the heroism of their chieftains”. In their Gaelic dialect they called the broom “bealadh” in token of its beauty. “This humble shrub” writes Baines, “was not less distinguished than the Rose herself during the civil wars of the fourteenth century”. Apart from its use in heraldry, the Broom has been associated with several popular traditions. In some parts it used to be considered a sign of plenty and fertility, for it bore many flowers and flourished quickly. The flowering tops were used for house decoration at the Whitsuntide festival, but it was considered unlucky to use them for menial purposes when in full bloom. In Suffolk an old traditional rune tells us: If you sweep the house with blossomed Broom in May, You are sure to sweep the head of the house away. In Christianity when Joseph and the Virgin Mary were fleeing into Egypt, the broom was cursed by the Virgin due to the cracking noise made by the pods as they touched them in passing, increasing the risk of drawing attention from Herod’s soldiers to their whereabouts. Medicinal Uses: The properties of broom as a healing herb was well known to the ancients, and recorded by such early writers as Virgil and Pliny who mention the species Genista. The medicinal use of broom is also mentioned in some of the earliest printed Herbals such like: the “Passau - 1485”, the “Hortus Sanitatis – 1491” and the “Grete Herball – 1516”. John Gerard in his Herbal first published in 1597 tells us that: “The decoction of the twigs and tops of broom doth cleanse and open the liver, milt and kidnies”. Gerard also says: “The common Broom groweth almost everywhere in dry pastures and low woods. It flowers at the end of April or May, and then the young buds of the flowers are to be gathered and laid in pickle or salt, which afterwards being washed or boiled are used for salads as capers be and be eaten with no less delight”. Broom buds of old were considered a favorite delicacy, and appeared on three separate tables at the Coronation feast of James II. They served a double purpose as an appetizer and a corrective. Broom also had a place in the first London Pharmacopoeia of 1618, from which Culpepper made an unauthorized translation. His translation was published by Peter Cole in 1649 and called: A Physicall Directory. Later in his celebrated Herbal published in 1652 called: The English Physician, Culpepper considered a decoction of broom to be good not only for dropsy, but also for black jaundice, ague, gout, sciatica and various pains of the hips and joints. Of old, farmers considered the green tops of broom a good winter food for sheep, preventing the appearance of rot and dropsy. The flowers of broom were used for making an unguent to cure the gout. Henry VIII used to drink a water infusion made from the flowers of broom, being purgative he believed it acted as a guard against his overindulgences. Some of the old physicians burned the tops to ashes and infused the salts they extracted in wine. They were known as Salts of Broom (Sal Genistae). Bruised Broom seeds were formerly used infused in rectified spirit, allowed to stand two weeks and then strained. A tablespoonful in a glass of peppermint water was taken daily for liver complaints and ague. The seeds have similar properties to the tops and were used medicinally, although they are no longer used officially. They were also used as a substitute for coffee. In its modern application the broom is used as a diuretic and cathartic medicine. Broom tops are used in the form of a decoction or infusion often mixed with Squill, together with Ammonium and Potassium acetate. It acts as a feeble diuretic used generally in dropsical complaints of cardiac origin. Due to the Scoparin it contains, the action on the renal mucous membrane is similar to that of Buchu and Uva-Ursi. The infusion is made from 1 oz. of dried broom tops to a pint of boiling water, and is taken in wine glassful doses frequently. When acute renal inflammation is present, it should not be given. A compound decoction of broom is recommended in herbal medicine as beneficial in bladder and kidney afflictions, as well as in chronic dropsy. To make this use 1 oz. of Broom tops and ½ oz. of Dandelion roots and boil in one pint of water down to half a pint, add to this ½ oz. of bruised Juniper berries. When cold strain the decoction and add a small quantity of Cayenne. A wine glassful taken three or four times a day, should cure the problem. The statements of different investigators both clinical and pharmacological, concerning the effects of the Sparteine in preparations of broom, have elicited opposing views on the effect upon the nerves and circulatory system. It is found to produce a transient rise in arterial pressure, followed by a longer period of decreased vascular tension. Small doses slow the heart for a short period of time and then hasten its rate, at the same time it increase the volume of the pulse. Those who advocate its employment, claim that it is useful as heart tonic and regulator in chronic valvular diseases. In large doses Sparteine can cause vomiting and purging, as such it can weaken the heart, depress the nerve cells and lower the blood pressure. It has a strong resemblance to the action of Coniine (Hemlock) on the heart. In extreme cases it can impair the activity of the respiratory organs and cause death. Shepherds have long been aware of the narcotic properties of broom due to Sparteine, having noticed that sheep after eating it become at first excited and then stupefied, however the intoxicating effects in animals soon pass off. Broom juice in large doses is apt to disturb the stomach and bowels, and is therefore more often used as an auxiliary to other diuretics, rather than used alone. Called (Infusum Scoparii) it is made by infusing the dried tops in boiling water for fifteen minutes and then straining. It was introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 and replaced the decoctions of broom in the preceding issues. “Caution” Regardless of what you read in books and articles such as this, before using any plant, herb or spice for medicinal purposes, specialized or professional advice should be sort. Experimentation is not an alternative to be considered when dealing with toxic plants. Magical Uses: In ritual wands made from reed/broom are used in purification and protection spells, and if working outdoors (the best place to perform magic) sweeping the ground with broom (if it grows nearby) will clear the area of unwanted influences. To raise the winds, throw some broom into the air while invoking the spirits of the Air, and to calm the winds burn some broom and bury the ashes. Of old, broom was hung up in the house to keep all evil influences out, and an infusion of broom sprinkled throughout the house was used to exorcise poltergeist activity. An infusion of broom was also drunk to increase psychic powers and awareness through its intoxication properties, but this is no longer recommended as the plant can also be poisonous. The reed/broom is known by many folk names: Banal, Basam, Besom, Bisom, Bizzon, Breeam, Broom Tops, Brum, Genista, Green Broom, Irish Broom, Link, Scotch Broom and Hog Weed. Its gender is Masculine. Its planet association is with Mars. Its element association is Air. Its deity associations are with: Pan, Hermes, Apollo and Dionysus/Bacchus. It is used to attract the powers needed for: Purification, Protection, Fertility, Wind, Divination and all Magickal Spells associated the element Air. Astrologically reed people (i.e. those born in the month of October) are practical people who enjoy making themselves useful to others. They will often be found organizing charity or other events. They love to use their hands and are not afraid to get them dirty, and have always been good at handicrafts. Others are attracted to them for their artistic abilities, and they can also be very imaginative.

The common ivy (Hedera Helix) while not a tree is a sacred plant of Wicca/Witchcraft, revered of old by the ancients as much as it is today by contemporaries. Its most common association is with the Holly tree, the “Holly and the Ivy” being used extensively worldwide as a Yuletide decoration. There are many varieties of ivy but the English Common Ivy (Hedera Helix) is the most prolific (not to be confused with Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans), see below). The ivy is native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, but is now cultivated in many other countries. Other common varieties are (Hedera helix hibernica) the Irish Ivy also planted extensively in America, and the (Hedera canariensis variegata) commonly planted in California. Ivy is a wild evergreen climbing vine that attaches itself to the bark of trees, brickwork and other surfaces. It climbs by means of curious fibers that grow out from every part of the stem. These fibers resemble roots and have small disks at the end by which it attaches itself to the roughness of the bark or wall against which it grows and clings. On meeting with soil or deep crevices, these fibers become true roots obtaining nourishment for its stem. The Ivy is therefore liable to injure the trees around which it twines by abstracting the trees life resources to feed its own. The leaves of the ivy come in many different shapes and sizes, the most common being a 3-lobed leaf with a heart-shaped base. Leaves of the mature plant are often un-lobed, oval and have wedge-shaped bases. The leaves are arranged alternately along its stem and are dark green in color, shiny with a leathery texture. When the plant is young it will climb and trail, and on reaching the summit of its support will start to grow outwards forming into a bush, the leaves at the top changing shape. The broad leaves being evergreen offer shelter to birds in the winter, and many prefer ivy to other shrubs in which to build their nests. Ivy only produces flowers when the branches get above their support. The flowering branches are bushy and project out from the climbing stem with flowers at the end of each shoot. The flowers normally come out in the autumn if sufficient sunlight is available, and appear as small umbrella-like clusters of a greenish-white or yellow. They often continue to flower until late in December and while they have little or no scent, they yield an abundance of nectar and afford food to bees late in the autumn when they can get no other. The fruit or berries of the ivy do not become ripe till the following spring, but never the less provide a valuable source of food for many birds during severe winters. When ripe the berries are about the size of a pea, black or deep purple in color and contain two to five seeds. They have a bitter and nauseous taste and when rubbed have an aromatic and slightly resinous odor. Of old, ivy leaves were recommended for cattle food and although cows did not like them, sheep and deer will sometimes eat them in the winter. Turners in Southern Europe used the wood of the ivy, after it attained a sufficient size but being very soft it was seldom used in England except for whetting the knives of leather dressers. The wood is very porous and the ancients thought it had the property of separating wine from water by filtration, however they soon realized that the wood absorbed its color and the wine loss some of its flavor, so they stopped using it. On the Continent it has sometimes been used in thin slices as a filter. The ivies greatest value is as an ornamental covering for unsightly buildings and is said to be the only plant that does not make walls damp. The leaves from the way they fall act as a curtain and form a sort of armor holding and absorbing the rain and moisture. Ivy is a very hardy plant and can withstand the severest of winters and frost; they also suffer little from smoke or the polluted air of manufacturing towns. The plant can live to a considerable age by which time its stem becomes woody and attains a fair size. Ivy trunks of a foot in diameter can be found where it has been left undisturbed for many years to grow and climbed over rocks and ruins. There is a darker side to the ivy however for left to grow unchecked it becomes an aggressive invader that threatens all vegetation levels of forested and open areas, it will grow along the ground as well as up into the forest canopy. The dense growth and abundant leaves of the ivy form a thick canopy just above the ground that prevents sunlight from reaching other plants. Similarly the vines climbing up tree trunks spread out and surround branches and twigs, preventing most of the sunlight from reaching the leaves of the host tree. The loss of vigor in the host tree becomes evident within a few years, and is followed by death a few years later. The added weight of vines makes infested trees susceptible to blowing over during storms. Ivy also serves as a reservoir for bacterial leaf scorch (Xylella fastidiosa), a plant pathogen that is harmful to native trees such as elms, oaks and maples. Ivy is a popular plant recommended for use as a low maintenance alternative to lawns. It is widely used by homeowners, landscapers, parks departments and others desiring a fast-growing low maintenance ground cover. However once established on a site, the ivy can be expected to move beyond its intended borders and spread into neighboring yards, parks and other lands. Ivy reproduces vegetatively and by seed, which is dispersed to new areas primarily by birds such like sparrows, starlings and robins. New plants grow easily from cuttings or from stems making contact with the soil. Mythology and folklore: Ivy was in high esteem among the ancients and its leaves formed the poet's crown. The ivy was dedicated to the Roman god Bacchus (the Greek god Dionysus, see “The Vine”), the God of Intoxication who is often depicted wearing a wreath of ivy and grapevines. He is also depicted holding a chalice and carrying a thyrsus (a wand) which was also entwined with ivy and vine leaves. Ivy leaves were thought to prevent intoxication and the binding of the brow with ivy was seen as a counterbalance to the vine. Old writers tell us that the effects of intoxication by wine are removed if a handful of ivy leaves are bruised and gently boiled in wine and drunk. In former days old English taverns bore a sign of an ivy bush over their doors, this to indicate the excellence of the liquor supplied within, hence the old saying “A good wine needs no bush”. Through its connection with the vine and nature, the ivy is also associated with one of the most popular of the ancient Egyptian gods Osiris, God of the Sun, Agriculture and Health. His queen was Isis who was also his wife and sister. As Osiris ruled the sun, Isis represented the moon and was believed to have taught the Egyptians the arts of agriculture and medicine. She was also credited with instituting marriage. In legend Osiris had an evil brother called Seth, the God of the Desert. Seth, who ruled the barren land of the desert was jealous of his brother who ruled the fertile lands of nature, he induced Osiris to get into a large chest or sarcophagus, which he then closed and had thrown into the Nile River. The coffin floated down the river through one of the mouths of the delta and out into the Mediterranean Sea, where the currents carried it to the port of Byblos. There his wife and sister Isis, sort and recovered his body. Isis was overjoyed for it was a general belief that there could be no life after death without a physical body. Out of animosity for her happiness, Seth re-seized the coffin and cut the corpse up into fourteen pieces, these he scattered throughout the lands and seas of Egypt. Once again Isis sort her husbands body, and with the assistance of Nut, his mother, she resurrected his body all except for his genitals, which had been consumed by fishes. As a re-born god, Osiris didn’t return to earth but stayed in the infertile lands below, and became a God of the Underworld. In another version, Isis buried each piece of his body where she found it, thus spreading the potency of his nature everywhere. From this story we can see the associations of ivy as a plant of life, death and re-newel, equated with fertility. Throughout the ages ivy has been regarded as the emblem of fidelity, and of old, Greek priests would present a wreath of ivy to newly married persons. Today the ivy is still commonly associated with weddings, and is carried or worn by bridesmaids. The custom of decorating houses and churches with ivy at Christmas was once forbidden by the Christian Church, on account of its pagan associations. Magical uses: Of old, women carried ivy to aid fertility and general good luck. They also carried it to ensure fidelity and from this came the custom of brides carrying ivy. Ivy wherever it is grown or proliferates, guards against negativity and disaster. Wands entwined with ivy were used in the worship of Bacchus, and are used in nature and fertility rites. Ritually and magically the ivy is paired with the holly tree and the vine (see “The Holly Tree” and “The Vine”). Medicinal Uses: Ivy is generally though to be poisonous, but Robinson tells us that a drachm of the flowers decocted in wine restrains dysentery, and that the yellow berries are good for those who spit blood and against jaundice (the Golden Ivy of Virgil (Hedera Chrysocarpa) is supposed to be the yellow berried variety but this is now rarely found). To remove sunburn it is recommended to smear the face with tender ivy twigs boiled in butter. Culpepper says of the ivy: “It is an enemy to the nerves and sinews taken inwardly, but most excellent outwardly”. Poison Ivy: Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) emits a poisonous oil irritant called “urushiol”. In its pure form the amount that could fill a pinhead, can make 500 people very miserable. Because urushiol is oil and not a water based fluid it does not evaporate, and so can linger for as long as a year. It will cover what ever it comes in contact with including: clothing, tools and even pet hair. Because it is an oil, when burned it vaporizes and is carried in the smoke covering everything it comes in contact with, again contaminating it for a year or longer. Urushiol is present on the leaves, stems and roots of the plant and is still active even on dead plants that have dried up. Poison ivy while an irritant to humans, serves a useful purpose of importance to the eco-systems they are present in. The small white or bluish berries found on poison ivy, feeds a number of birds and small animals, they also use the tangles they form for shelter and building nests. The irritants found in urushiol oil do not affect most animals, but to humans it can cause a very irritating itch. This can be easily treated if you identified your contact with the plant within a few hours of the incident. The urushiol oil chemically bonds with the proteins in our skin about 30 minutes after contact, and 75% of the population can be affected by contact with the plant. Some fortunate people are immune, but immunity today does not assure immunity tomorrow and vice versa. The rash symptoms normally appear within a few hours but can also take up to five days to appear. The rash starts as a red annoying itchy area, and soon begins to swell. The area then becomes inflamed and covered in clusters of tiny pimples, the pimple eventually merge and turn into blisters. The fluid in the blisters turns yellow, dries up and becomes crusty. Left untreated it can last as short as five days but in severe cases as long as five to six weeks. If exposed to poison ivy, it is recommended you should wash off with hot water (but not so hot that it burns) and strong soap as soon as possible. If you can get washed up in the first six hours and before the first symptoms appear, you have a good chance of avoiding the rash, and an even better chance of minimizing the effects if you do have one. If you do start to get a rash there is bad news, for there is no anti-toxin available for urushiol. There are products that will make you more comfortable, but no specific treatments, the most common suggestions are to apply calamine lotion to the rash or rub the rash with an ice cube. These remedies may or may not work, but they probably won't cause any harm. Washing in hot water with strong soap within the first 24 hours of exposure, and not “scratching”, is best the help to reduce the length and severity of a reaction. Fortunately the rash is not communicable once you get one, this means you cannot pass it on to someone else through normal contact, only the urushiol oil spreads the rash. As blisters start to form over the infected area it is best you should never break the blisters. Breaking blisters can lead to blood poison and generally in medical circles, the draining of blisters is frowned upon. You should try to let the infected area breath and if you do wrap it, try to keep the dressings as clean as possible, weeping blisters are hot beds for infection. Ivy is known by the folk name Gort. Its gender is Feminine. Its planet ruler is Saturn. Its element association is Water. Its deities associated are with: Osiris, Dionysus, Bacchus and Persephone. It is used to attract the powers needed for: Fertility, Fidelity, Life, Death and Rebirth, and anything associated with nature and water. Astrologically ivy people (i.e. those people born in September) are steadfast, constant and even-tempered. They are generally easy going and at times can even be whimsical. They do not take sides in disputes unless they feel a threat to their basic beliefs. They should not treat love attachments to lightly, for it is easy for them to move on, but if they love longer they will love better.

The Vine or Grape Vine (Vitis vinifera) is more of a shrub plant than a tree, but never the less as one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world, it is sacred to Wicca/Witchcraft and was revered as much as any tree by the ancients of long ago. Like the oak tree, the vine is a very long-lived plant, and is nearly as old as civilization. The fossilized leaves, seeds and stems of grapevines, some of them thought to be 40 million years old, have been found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Wines produced from its grapes have been a universal drink since records began. Details of growing grapes and making wine have been discovered in Egyptian hieroglyphics dating from about 2400 BC. Grape seeds found with mummies in Egyptian tombs are thought to be at least 3,000 years old. Wine making was also a regular part of ancient Greek life and Pliny (see Old Masters of Academia) speaks of one that was supposedly 600 years old. In old Christian scriptures, Noah is said to have planted a vineyard after he survived the great flood. The name vine is derived from the Latin word “viere”, meaning to twist, likened to the twining habits of the plant. Grape vines are native to the northern temperate zones, but cultivated throughout the world by the wine making industry. Today there are some 60 species of vine producing more than 8,000 varieties of grape. France, Spain and Italy cultivate the most acreage of grapes, followed by Turkey and Georgia. Other principal grape-producing countries are Algeria, Argentina, Greece, Hungary, Portugal, Romania and the United States. Australia, Bulgaria, Chile, Germany, Syria, and South Africa also produce a large part of the world's grape market. All of these countries have sizable wine making industries. Grapes can grow in many different kinds of soil, but the soil must have a certain depth and drain well, soil of a volcanic nature produces the finest wines. A common method of propagation is to plant cuttings taken from mature vines. Another method is known as layering. This is done by bending down a branch of a mature vine and forcing it to grow along a shallow trench in the ground. After shoots start to grow upward from the buds on the branch, the trench is filled with soil. The shoots then develop roots and by winter the shoots and their roots are ready to be cut from the parent branch. In the spring they can be planted as new grapevines. The vine is a long-lived climbing shrub cloaked in large lobed leaves and clusters of small green or whitish flowers. The fruit or grape consists of a watery fleshy pulp containing stones, encased in a soft skin. Grapes are differentiated by their skin colors, which range from pale green or yellow to red, purple or black. Some varieties are even multicolored. The stem of old vines can reach a considerable size in warm climates, and planks up to 15 inch’s across have been cut from them, but this is highly unusual. In Burgundy there are vines said to be 400 years old and over. The leaves of the vine when gathered in June contain a mixture of cane sugar and glucose, tartaric acid, potassium bi-tartrate, quercetine, quercitrin, tannin, amidon, malic acid, gum, inosite, an un-crystallizable fermentable sugar and oxalate of calcium. When gathered in the autumn, the leaves contain much more quercetine and less traces of quercitrin. The ripe juice of the grape is called “must” and contains sugar, gum, malic acid, potassium bi-tartrate and inorganic salts. When dried, ripe grapes are commonly called raisins, and contain dextrose and potassium acid tartrate. The unripe juice of the grape is called “verjuice” and contains malic, citric, tartaric, racemic and tannic acids, as well as potassium bi-tartrate, sulphate of potash and lime. The seeds of the grape contain tannin and a fixed oil. Physical Uses: The vine has little other use then that of wine making. Of the 60 species of vine and the 8,000 or more varieties of its grapes, only one species is used for nearly all the wine made in the world, the (Vitis vinifera) species, often called the “World Grape”. From this one species as many as 4,000 varieties of grape have been developed, but only about a dozen of these are commonly used for wine making. The chief varieties used are: Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Gewurztraminer, Sauvignon Blanc and Muscat. Wine is made by allowing the grape juice to ferment. To aid the fermentation process, yeast (usually Saccharomyces) is added to convert the sugars to alcohol. Fermentation usually takes place in large vats from which the air is excluded to prevent oxidation, and to discourage the growth of vinegar-forming bacteria. Normally fermentation takes from ten to 30 days, during which the temperature is controlled to promote yeast growth and to extract the flavors and colors from the skins. Artificial heat for this purpose was not used till the early part of the last century, and the first accounts of vineries enclosed by glass date from the middle of that period. After the fermentation process is done, the wine is racked (drawn off) to separate it from the lees (the dregs or sediment). Some wines deposit their sediment quickly, but other wines remain cloudy for long periods. The wine then goes through several clarification processes before being stored and aged in wooden containers made of oak or redwood. This aging process allows oxygen to enter and water and alcohol to escape. During which time the acidity decreases and additional clarification takes place. The wood from the container also contributes too and enhances the flavor and aroma of the wine. The wood-aging process may last many months or several years depending on the wine and the quality desired. Before bottling ready for sale the wine may require blending, filtration and the addition of an antiseptic agent to prevent microbe development. Some wines are aged in bottles before being sold. Red wines in particular may profit from two to twenty years of bottle aging. The diversity and quality of wine comes not only from the kinds of grapes used, but also from the distinctive qualities of the soil it was grown in, also climatic conditions prevailing while it was grown. Changes in weather patterns from one year to the next can have a tremendous influence on the quality of a vintage. In addition each vintner or community wine maker may have a different technique of producing the wine that no one else knows or uses. Mythology and Folklore: In Greek mythology Dionysus is the God of Nature, and the God of the Vine and Wine (later personified by the Roman god Bacchus). As Dionysus, he was also the God of Ecstasy and his cult was one of the mystery religions. He produced the first wine from the vine, and spread the art of tending grapes, but he also had a dual side to his nature, on the one hand he could bring about joy and divine ecstasy and on the other hand brutal unthinking rage, both reflecting the nature of wine. Dionysus is the son of Zeus and Semele and the only god to have a mortal parent. Legend has it that Zeus came to Semele in the night invisible, felt only as a divine presence. Semele was pleased to be a lover of a god even though she did not know which god it was. But word of his infidelity soon spread and Hera his wife quickly assumed who was responsible. She went to Semele in disguise and convinced her that she should see her lover as he really was. When Zeus next came to see her, Semele made him promise to grant her one wish, he was made to swear on the River Styx that he would grant her request. Zeus by this time was madly in love and agreed, even though he knew what would happen. She then asked him to show her his true form. Zeus was unhappy, but having sworn he had no choice. When he appeared in his true form Semele was instantly struck dead by the sight of all his glory. Zeus then took the unborn Dionysus from Semele’ womb and sewed the infant into his thigh till he was ready to be born. After due time Dionysus emerged from his thigh perfectly formed and became known as “the twice-born god” associated with death and rebirth. In another legend Hera still jealous about Dionysus arranged for the Titans to kill him, and in response they ripped him into to pieces. However the goddess Rhea (also known as Cybele) brought him back to life. After this Zeus arranged for his protection and turned him over the mountain nymphs to be raised. It was they who taught him to tend the vine. Dionysus is one of the few gods who was able to bring a dead person out of the underworld. Even though he had never seen his mother Semele, he descended into the underworld in an effort to bring her back. Hades agreed to release her only if Dionysus gave him something he held very dear, so Dionysus gave up the myrtle plant. On his way into the underworld he had met a man called Prosymnus from whom he had asked for directions, the man agreed but asked for certain sexual favors to be repaid on his return. On his way out Dionysus was unable to keep his promise to Prosymnus for had died, so instead Dionysus planted a phallus-shaped stick on his tomb in repayment. Dionysus wandered the world accompanied by Maenads, actively encouraging his cult and worship. The Maenads were wild women often flush with wine, their shoulders draped with fawn skins and carrying rods tipped with pine cones. While the other gods erected temples for their worship, the followers of Dionysus worshiped him in the woods. There they would work themselves up into mad states of frenzy and ecstasy, and any animals they came upon would be rip apart in sacrifice, their flesh eaten raw. As Bacchus he was accompanied Bacchantes, a similar band of woman worshipers who also roamed the forests dressed in animal skins. Dionysus became one of the most important gods in everyday life, and associated with several key concepts. One was rebirth after death. Here his dismemberment by the Titans and return to life is symbolically echoed in tending vines. Each year the vines are pruned back sharply and left to become dormant through the winter, ready to bear fruit in the following spring. Another concept is that under the influence of wine we can connect with nature. In the mystery traditions intoxication comes not from the plant but from the spirit of the plant, the divine essence, under which we become free and liberated from the constraints of formal society. At these times a man might be greater then himself and do works he otherwise could not. In ancient times the festival of Dionysus was held in the spring when the leaves begin to reappear on the vine. Because he was the god of wine, his festivals were lively affairs that offered the chance to put aside the daily routines of life and get caught up in wild celebrations. Though in many cases only those who had been initiated into the cult could participate in the festivities. Over time it became one of the most important events of the year, and its focus became the theater for drama. Most of the great Greek plays of the times were specially written to be performed at the feast of Dionysus. All those who took part, the writers, actors and spectators were regarded as scared servants of Dionysus during the festival. As Bacchus they celebrated the Bacchanalia, or festival of Bacchus every third year. But the attics of the worshipers became so immoral that the Roman Senate suppressed it in 186 BC, and all the Bacchic sanctuaries were destroyed. The religion however continued and was popular in the first century, by the second century it is known there was a group of 500 worshipers at Frascati in Italy, and presumably other such groups existed. Dionysus is often seen depicted holding a Chalice and a Wand. His wand was called a “thyrsus”. Of old, the thyrsus was made from a fennel stalk capped with a pine cone and to the ancients this was symbolic of a plant and seed as representing the union of his forest nature (the pine cone) and his agricultural nature (the fennel). The chalice is thought to represent the womb of his mother Semele for whom he would have been a Child of Promise. In it he offers her his divine nature, for it contains his liquid essence “wine”. So from legend he comes down to us as the “Lord of the Harvest” whose essence and seed is returned via the soil, to the mother earth. In Wicca/Witchcraft a wand or thyrsus is representative of the phallus of the god, and the chalice as the womb of the goddess. Therefore the thyrsus is the stalk and the seed, representing the shaft of the phallus and the semen issuing forth. The chalice is the opening to the womb and the lining of the uterus. As Dionysus holds them both, he is symbolically displaying the male and female polarities that when united will bring forth a Child of Promise. In art he is depicted wearing a crown of ivy, and covered in vine leaves and grapes, a typical image of the Green Man. As Bacchus he is bearded, more rustic in appearance and sporting horns, a typical image of the Horned God. So here we have in this one god, all the aspects of a tradition Wiccan God: he is a God of Nature and Lord of the Harvest, a God of the Underworld, a Son/Lover of the Goddess, a Child of Promise, the Green Man and the Horned God, all combined into one. Magical Uses: In ancient Rome pictures of grapes were drawn or painted onto garden walls as a symbol to ensure fertility in the garden. Eating grapes or raisins increases fertility, as well as strengthening mental powers. Placing grapes on the altar when conducting money spells will help and aid in money matters. During ritual wine is contained in the chalice and placed on the altar where it is used for many purposes. It can be used to symbolize the blood of the Goddess as a life giving essence, or to symbolize the blood of the Slain God after his death and during his resurrection. Intoxication though wine was thought to be the possession of the self by the indwelling spirit of the vine, so to drink the wine during ritual was to merge oneself with the spirit of the vine and thus with nature. The wine is also used for toasting the deities in welcome and offerings of libations. It is a common practice in modern Wicca/Witchcraft to celebrate the conclusion of a full moon or Sabbat meeting with a meal of cakes and wine. Medicinal Uses: The restorative and regenerative powers of the grape was known, used and revered by the ancients of old. The warming and fattening properties of grape sugar acts rapidly to increase strength and repair waste in fevers, it is however unsuitable for inflammatory or gouty conditions. The seeds and leaves of the grapevine are astringent, and were used to stop hemorrhages and bleeding, when boiled with Barley-meal and made into a poultice, it was also used to cool the inflammation of wounds. Dried and powdered the leaves were used as a cure for dysentery in cattle. The sap of the vine taken from a cutting and allowed to bleed, is often called a “tear” or “lachrymal”, and makes an excellent lotion for weak eyes and specks on the cornea. Ripe grapes eaten in quantity can influence the kidneys to produce a free flow of urine, but care should be taken when feeding excitable and full-blooded people, for too much could cause palpitations. Dyspeptic subjects should avoid eating them. In cases of anemia and in states of exhaustion, the restorative powers of the grape is in a class of its own, especially when taken in conjunction with a light and nourishing diet. In cases of smallpox, grapes have proved useful owing to their bi-tartrate of potash content, they are also said to be of benefit in cases of neuralgia and sleeplessness. The droppings of the vine when it is cut in the spring can be boiled with sugar into a syrup, taken inwardly this is an excellent stay for women's longings when pregnant. People that suffer from torpid liver and sluggish biliary functions should eat grapes that are not quite fully ripe, whilst those who require animal heat to support waste of tissue, should eat fully ripe and sweet grapes. Dried grapes or raisins are largely used in the manufacture of galenical medicines, the seeds being separated and rejected as they give a very bitter taste. Raisins are demulcent, nutritive and slightly laxative. The ash of burnt vines was used as toothpaste to make discolored teeth white again, by rubbing them with it in the morning. In modern days the juice of the grape is rich in vitamins and minerals, particularly iron. It provides a source of instant energy and is ideal for convalescents. The grape is laxative and diuretic and despite its sugar content it is not fattening. Fasting except for grape-juice and grapes has been recommended by naturopaths to clear many chronic diseases. Grapes are used in the treatment of poor blood circulation, low blood pressure, anemia, liver congestion and skin blemishes. Through its associations with nature, the underworld and reincarnation, the deities associated with the vine are numerous, and include: Dionysus, Bacchus, Hathor, Venus, Branwen, Aphrodite, Apollo and Osiris. Its gender is feminine. Its planet ruler is the Moon with strong associations to the Sun. Its element is with Water, and its magickal associations promote: Fertility, Death and Rebirth, Garden Magick, Money, Mental powers and Freedom of Spirit. Astrologically vine people (i.e. those born in the month of August) love tradition and are happiest returning to places where they have had good times in the past. They are sensual in nature but will defend their ideas and ideals passionately. They care about nature and the preservation of the natural world, and will risk life and limb in its defense.

The Hazel tree (Corylus avellana) is member of the birch family (Betulaceae), and is one of the sacred trees of Wicca/Witchcraft revered by the ancients and contemporaries alike. In Celtic lore the Hazel was considered a tree of knowledge, particularly in Ireland were its nuts became a symbol of great mystical wisdom. There are some 15 species of Hazel native to the Northern temperate zones and variously called filbert, hazelnut or cobnut depending on the relative length of the nut to its husk. The large cobnut variety is of the European species. Common throughout Britain and Europe, Hazel can also be found in America, North Africa, Turkey, and in Central and Northern Asia. More of a large shrub than a tree, its average height is 12–20 feet (3½-6 meters) though is has been recorded to have grown up to 60 feet (18 meters). Its preference is to grow in copses, oak woods and hedgerows, and thrives in damp places near to ponds and streams, however it will fruit better if grown were the land has good drainage. The wood of the Hazel is a whitish red and has a close and even grain. Today it is mainly grown and copped for its smooth reddish-brown stems, which have a great toughness and elasticity; well-veined veneers are produced from its larger roots. Its wood was of particular use to the countryman, its flexibility being used for hampers, hoops, wattles, walking sticks, fishing rods, whip-handles and a multitude of like other uses. Rustic seats and baskets for gardens were made of Hazel, varnished with the bark on they were found to be very durable. Hazel also makes good oven-wood; its charcoal is also suited for making crayons and for gunpowder. The bark of the Hazel is light brown in color and smooth, except for speckles of spongy light brown lenticels acting like pores which draw apart the bark allowing the tree to breathe. The leaves of the Hazel grow quite large 2–4 inches (5-10 cm), and are slightly heart-shaped with toothed edges rounding into a long point. In the bud they are folded into several longitudinal plaits. The leaves open in early spring growing singly on a short stem, at which time they tend to be lime-green in color and are bright and pleasing. During the summer they turn from mid-green in color to tints of green, yellow-brown and pink in autumn. The leaves stay with the tree much longer than most other trees, sometimes well into December by which time they turn to shades of yellow, dull orange and red. The flowers of the Hazel appear in January, or sometimes even as early as October given the right climatic conditions, though more frequently they won’t open until March. Male and female flowers form on the same tree but in distinct clusters or catkins. The male catkins are pendulous and first appear as minute sausage-shaped buds of a dullish brown color. As they mature they turn a pale greenish-yellow or primrose color and when its pollen has been shed to green. The catkin consists of a number of bract-like scales each bearing eight anthers on its inner surface; from these fine-grained yellow pollen is shaken by the wind, after which they are discarded. The female flowers are grouped in little egg-shaped buds that sit sessile on the branch. The flower itself is a two-chambered ovary surrounded by a velvety cup-like bract, which later grows into the large leafy husk or cupule of the nut. It is surmounted by a short style with two long crimson stigmas forming a tassel at the top of the cluster. The fruit of the Hazel tree has a peculiarity in its growth that is worthy of note. The male flowers or catkins are mostly produced on the ends of the year's shoots, while the female flowers are produced close to the branch where they are completely sessile or un-stalked. In most fruit trees when a flower is fertilized the fruit is produced in exactly the same place, but with the hazelnut a different arrangement takes place. As soon as the flower is fertilized it starts away from the parent branch and a fresh branch is grown bearing the new leaves and nuts at its end, thus the new nut is produced several inches away from the spot on which its parent flower originally grew. Hazelnuts generally ripen by September and can be eaten directly off the tree. They also provide a rich source of food for many of the smaller animals, such like squirrels and dormice. Birds, in particular nut-hatchers (a variety of small passerine birds of the family “Sittidae”) are partial to the nuts, wedging them in crevices and beating at them with their beaks until they crack. Left un-eaten the nuts fall to the ground where they germinate. After the winter their shells crack and from it springs a root followed by a new stem still joined to the nut and drawing sustenance from it by two thick fibers. As the root grounds into the earth and becomes established, the stem rises and a new sapling is born. Mythology and folklore: Of old, Hazel trees were cultivated by the Romans and because they were so plentiful in Scotland, they called Scotland by the Latinized name Caledonia, a term that comes from Cal-Dun, which means “Hill of Hazel”. Hazel was also plentiful in Europe where wild Hazel has grown abundantly since pre-historic times, there its nuts appears to have formed part of the staple food diet of the Swiss lake-dwellers. Another old custom was to use Hazel-twigs to bind vines to stakes. The vines being sacred Bacchus (the Roman god of intoxication and liberation) and any goats found feeding on them were caught and sacrificed to him on spits made of Hazel. Since medieval times trees have been considered sacred. In Ireland in particular three trees gained special prominence, the Apple tree for its beauty, the Hazel for its wisdom and the Oak for its strength. Indeed so sacred were these trees regarded that any unjustified felling of an Apple Hazel or Oak tree carried the death penalty. Through their associations with beauty, wisdom and strength, the wood of these trees was often combined to make funeral pyres. At which times particular respect seems to have been paid to the Hazel in relation to its wisdom, for many cases have been recorded both in England and on the Continent of Hazel-wands being found in the coffins of notables. Among the chiefs and rulers of ancient times, a Hazel wand was considered a symbol of authority and wisdom. In mythology the Hazel was attributed to the Roman god Mercury (Mercurius), who is associated with the Greek god Hermes. Mercury/Hermes was the messenger of the gods and also the god of commerce, manual skill, eloquence, cleverness, travel and thievery. Of old he was often depicted with a staff or wand of Hazel called a caduceus, and wearing a broad rimed traveling hat and sandals. As the Greek legend has it, when he was only a few hours old he escaped from his cradle and went out in search of adventure. During which time he stretched cords across a tortoise shell and invented the lyre. Later that same evening perhaps feeling hungry, he stole two oxen from Apollo (the god of the sun) and hid them in a cave where he killed them. When Apollo discovered what had happened, Hermes charmed him by playing on his lyre and Apollo allowed him to go unpunished. In gratitude Hermes gave his lyre to Apollo who in return gave Hermes a magic wand, the caduceus, which bestowed wisdom, wealth and prosperity, and turned everything it touched into gold. Mercury/Hermes as the messenger of the gods could move swiftly through the air and sea. As such the artistic impression of him changed, wings in his hair replaced the broad rimed hat and the sandals became wings at his ankles to aid him as he traveled on the wind. The caduceus was often depicted with two ribbons tied to it indicting speed as he flowed through the air. Later the ribbons changed to serpents as the caduceus was adopted by the medical profession and became the symbol of the healing arts. The two serpents entwined around the staff are symbolic of illness and health, and life and death, for in ancient symbolism the venom of a snake could be used to heal or to poison. Many other Irish legends concerning the Hazel have been passed down through its association with water and salmon. One is a description of Connla’s Well, believed to be the source of the River Shannon. The well is surrounded by nine Hazel trees which produce both flowers and fruit (beauty and wisdom). As the fruit (the nuts) fall into the well, the salmon that live there eat them and whatever number of nuts they eat, so the same number of spots appears on its body. The salmon also became the recipient of all knowledge. The Hazel’s association with the element Air and speed of movement, is also replicated through its association with salmon, for salmon swim swiftly through the water and at times can be seen taking huge leaps out of the water appearing to fly through the air. Magical Uses: Down through the ages the Hazel has always been considered magical, and was used primarily for its powers of divination. The use of Hazel to detect water and mineral veins comes down from antiquity. Typically a divining rod (dowsing rod) had two forks off its main stem shaped like the letter “Y”. The two forks were gripped in the fists with the fingers uppermost, so that the tail end pointed downward toward the object sought. In other cases the rod was peeled and simply laid on the palm of the hand. Before the 17th century Hazel rods were also used to find thieves, murderers and treasure. The art of divination by dowsing is called “rhabdomancy”. According to Evelyn (John Evelyn, 1620-1706. An English author who’s “Diary” (1640-1706) was considered an important source regarding late 17th-cent English politics and religion) the art of rhabdomancy is: "Very wonderful by whatever occult virtue, the forked stick (so cut and skilfully held) becomes impregnated with those invisible steams and exhalations, as by its spontaneous bending from a horizontal posture to discover not only mines and subterranean treasure and springs of water, but criminals guilty of murder etc. Certainly next to a miracle and requires a strong faith." Even Linnaeus (Carolus Linnaeus (orig. Carl von Linne) 1707-78. The Swedish botanist considered the father of modern botany) confessed himself to be half a convert to this belief. The practice of dowsing is still common today in Cornwall and other western counties. According to local superstition, the rod is guided to water or mineral lodes by guardian piskies, or the kobolds of the German miner. The dowser or rhabdomancer is said to feel a sudden acceleration or retardation of the pulse, or a sensation of great heat or cold at the moment of discovery. Other woods such as the Willow have also been used with success for dowsing. It is probable from this use of Hazel rods in divination, that the nuts of the Hazel became associated with fortune telling. In Scotland an old custom of love divination still prevails on Halloween, in which two hazelnuts are given the names of lovers and placed on burning embers. If they burn quietly and remained side by side, the lovers were considered faithful, but if the nuts crack, spit and roll apart, they were considered to be ill-matched and one of them unfaithful. In ritual Hazel wands are used in connection with mercurial energy from which poetic and magical inspiration is gained and imparted. Hazel wands can also be used to divine suitable places in which to work magick. An old method of cutting a wand was to find a tree that has yet to bare fruit, and at sunrise on a Wednesday (the day ruled by Mercury), to cut a branch with a single stroke from a sickle. The Hazel is considered to be at its most powerful during early spring while its sap is rising, and in autumn when its sap and energy is fully contained within it, ready for its harvest of nuts. A good divining rod is said to “squeal like a pig” when held under water. The nuts of the Hazel were commonly used to bring luck by stringing them together and hanging them in the house. Such a string of nuts were often given to a new bridesmaid as a gift, to wish her good fortune. Eaten the nuts give wisdom and are said to increase fertility. They were also of old, eaten before divination to increase inspiration. Also of old, supple twigs if Hazel were woven into crowns and called “wishing caps”. When worn and if you wished very hard, your desires would come true. Sailors, believing them to offer protection against bad storms at sea, also wore wishing caps. The ancient druids believed they could induce invisibility by wearing them. Twigs of Hazel placed on window ledges give protection against lightening, and three pins of Hazel hammered into a wall of the house would protect it from fire. Medicinal Uses: The physical medicinal uses of the Hazel are but a few, but its main virtue being that of wisdom, its nuts in particular, these were often worn talismanically (to coin a phrase) for a healthy life gained through that wisdom. Some say it has the power to cure fevers, diarrhea and excessive menstrual flow, but I can find no further evidence to back this up (an old wife’s tale perhaps?). Carrying a double hazelnut in a pocket was and old country charm used to prevent toothache. If bitten by a snake, an equal armed cross made of Hazel laid upon it, was an ancient remedy said to draw out the poison. The kernels of the nut ground fine and mixed with mead or honeyed water is said to be good for coughs that won’t clear, and when mixed with pepper in a decoction will clear a fuzzy head. The Hazel is known by the folk names: Coll, the Poets Tree and Dripping Hazel. Its deity associations are with: Mercury, Hermes, Thor, Mac Coll, Aengus, Artemis and Diana. Its ruling planets are the Sun and Mercury. Its associated element is Air, but it also has a great affinity with Water. Its gender is masculine. It is used to attract the powers needed for: Protection, Fertility, Luck, Anti-Lightening, Wishes, Inspiration and anything associated with the element Air. Astrologically hazel people (i.e. those who are born during the month of July) have the soul of a pioneer, but they waste too much energy on competitive thoughts and fighting abuses instead of letting their own gifts and skills ripen. Hazel people can be impatient for things to happen, and hurry things along when they should sit back and let things take their own course. They are sometimes too intent on running around trying new things, that they forget the older values of patience that would help them. When Hazel people listen to their own natural rhythms, they find they are happier and more prepared spiritually and physically. They are generally charming, undemanding, very understanding and know how to make an impression. They can be active fighters for social causes, are popular but can be moody. They are capricious lovers but are honest and tolerant partners. They also have a precise sense of judgment about what is right and wrong.

The Holly tree (Ilex aquifolium) as a symbol of goodwill, peace, health and happiness is one of the sacred trees of Wicca/Witchcraft, but its most common association is as a Christmas seasonal decoration. In England Holly is an important native evergreen, as it is to most parts of central and southern Europe, but it is also grown in America, China and Japan. In the barren whiteness of winter against the frost and snow, Holly forms one of the most striking objects in the woodlands. Its glossy green leaves and clusters of scarlet/red berries, add a flash of color to trees without leaves cheering the hearts of weary wanderers. Many of the old Christmas Carols are full of allusions to Holly. As a small tree or shrub the Holly grows very slowly and if planted with other equally slow growing trees, it can achieve heights of up to 50 feet (15 meters) but more frequently in Britain its normal height is 30 to 40 feet (9-12 meters). In Italy and in the woodlands of France, especially those of Brittany, it can attain a much larger size than is common in England. Holly is often found growing in close proximity to Oak and Beech trees. The ease with which Holly can be kept trimmed renders it valuable as a hedge plant and forms hedges of great thickness and impenetrability. Today there are some 400 species of Holly shrubs and trees, and many but not all are evergreens. The main North American species known simply as American Holly (Ilex opaca) grows naturally along the Atlantic coast and in the Southern states. These trees grow to about 50 feet (15 meters) in height. Kashi Holly (I. Chinensis) grows in Japan and China and is used for decoration during the Chinese New Year. Of the cultivated varieties one is distinguished by the unusual color of its berries, which are yellow, others are characterized by their variegated foliage or by the presence of a larger or smaller number of prickles than ordinary types. The Holly will grow in almost any soil provided it is not too wet, but gains its best when planted in rich, sandy or gravely soil with good drainage and a moderate amount of moisture at the roots. In very dry localities it is usually stunted in its growth but it will live in almost any earth not saturated with water. Its most favored position appears to be in thin scattered woods of Oak, between the intervals of which it grows up at once. It is rarely affected even by the most severe of winters and seems to be immune to infestation by insects. Birds love to feed on its berries, which contain its seeds. After being eaten by the birds the seeds are discarded during flight and having passed through the bird are softened ready for germination. It takes about two years to germinate and although it’s always a slow grower, it grows more quickly after the first four or five years. As the Holly grows it branches and leaves from top to bottom forming a bushy head, or it may take on the form of a pyramid, pointed at the top and leafy to its base. The trunk of the Holly like that of the Beech frequently has small wood-knots attached to it, these are composed of a smooth nodule of solid wood embedded in its bark, but they can be easily separated from the tree with a smart blow. The bark of the Holly is delicate and thin, and has a light ashen hue that is smooth and grey, sometimes touched with a faint crimson. The bark is often covered in a characteristic green algae, and is very likely to house thin lichen consisting of numerous curvy black lines closely resembling oriental writing. The wood of the Holly is hard, compact and close-grained. Its color is of beautiful white ivory that can be buffed to a very high polish. When freshly cut the wood has a slightly greenish hue but soon becomes perfectly white, its hardness makes it superior to any other white wood. As such it is much prized for ornamental ware and the evenness of its grain makes it very valuable to the turner. It is also used extensively for inlaying furniture with marquetry. Holly is very retentive of its sap and warps in consequence, so it needs to be well dried and seasoned before being used. As well as an imitation of white ivory, it is often stained different colors such as blue, green, red or black. When stained black it has the appearance of ebony and is often used as a substitute for it. Mathematical instruments such as weather-gauges and barometers are made of it, also the blocks for calico printing. Of old a straight stick of Holly was used by country gentlemen for walking sticks and for the stocks of light driving whips. The leaves of the Holly have a leathery texture and are thick, green and glossy. Normally they are about 2 inches long and 1 1/4 inches broad, edged with stout prickles alternately pointing upwards and downwards, though most of the upper leaves have only a single prickle. The leaves have neither taste nor odor and remain attached to the tree for several years. When they fall, the leaves take a long time to decay, defying the natural actions of air and moisture. In May the Holly bears its flowers, these are pale pink on the outside and pure white on the inside. Male and female flowers are usually borne on different trees. The fertile female flowers are pollinated by insects such as wild bees who are attracted to the flower by the smell of a honey like liquid released from their bases, the flower then produces the familiar clusters of brilliant scarlet/red berries. If a tree crops well one year, it will normally rest the following year before cropping again. The berries though eaten by birds and animals are poisonous to human beings and children in particular should be warned against eating them. Deer eat Holly leaves in winter and sheep thrive on them. In olden times peasants of the country gathered up the young stems and made use of it as a cattle-feed to sustain them during the privations of the winter. The stems were dried and bruised and given to the cows three times a day. The cows seemed to thrive on it and produced good milk, the butter from which was said to be excellent. It is also well known to rabbit-breeders that a Holly-stick placed in a hutch for the rabbits to gnaw, would act as a tonic and restore their appetite. Folklore and Myths: Holly is extensively used all over the world as a Christmas decoration, a custom said to be derived from the early Romans who used to send boughs of Holly accompanied with other gifts to their friends during Saturnalia (This was the Roman festival of Saturn held about the 17th of Dec, and was a celebration of the winter solstice with general feasting and revelry). The custom of decorating the home with Holly has been credited to the Druids who decorated their huts with evergreens during winter as an abode for the sylvan spirits (spirits of the woodlands). The early Christians then adopted the custom from them. An old Christian legend has it that the Holly first sprang up under the footsteps of Christ as he trod the earth and its thorny leaves and scarlet berries are likened to drops of blood symbolic of his suffering. In many parts of Europe the Holly tree was called “Christ's Thorn” or “Holy Tree” particularly by older writers, Turner for instance refers to it by this name in his “Herbal ” published in 1568. In old Christian church calendars, Christmas Eve was often marked “templa exornantur” (meaning “the churches are decked”) and so the custom continues today. Other popular names for Holly are Hulver, Holme and Holme Chase. In Norfolk it is called Hulver, in Devon - Holme, and in parts of Dartmoor - Holme Chase. In folklore the Holly is associated with the spirit of vegetation and the waning forces of nature, which are represented through the mythical figure of the Holly King. The Holly King rules nature during its decline from mid-summer through to mid-winter, when at the winter solstice he is defeated in ritual combat by his brother the Oak King, who then claims and rules the following seasons. The Holly King is often depicted as an old man dressed in winter clothing wearing a wreath of Holly on his head and walking with the aid of a staff made from a Holly branch. Traditionally at Christmas time a man was dressed up and covered in Holly branches and leaves, and a woman was likewise dressed in Ivy (the female counterpart of Holly). Together they would be paraded through the streets hand in hand leading the old year into the new. This is symbolic of the fertile interaction of the goddess and god during natures decline and the darkest time of the year, from which the new light of the sun-god springs forth encouraging fresh growth and renewed vegetation during the coming new year. Today the Holly King has been stylized by the figure of Santa Claus. Pliny (Pliny the Elder AD 23-79, was a Roman naturalist, his “Historia naturalis” was an encyclopedic study of plants and animal life, and was for a long time a standard authority) tells us that if Holly is planted near a house or farm, it would repelled poison and defended it from lightning and witchcraft. Also that its flowers cause water to freeze and that its wood when thrown at an animal, even without touching it, had the property of compelling the animal to return and lie down beside it. Medicinal Uses: Holly leaves were formerly used as a diaphoretic and an infusion of them was given in catarrh, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, pleurisy and smallpox. They have also been used in intermittent fevers and rheumatism for their tonic properties. The juice of the fresh leaves has been used to advantage in jaundice, and when sniffed was said to stop a runny nose. When soaked in vinegar and left for a day and a night, it was used to cure corns. An old remedy for chilblains was to thrash them with a branch of Holly to “chase the chills out”, but this could also be painful. The berries possess totally different qualities to the leaves, being violently emetic and purgative, a very few can cause excessive vomiting soon after they are swallowed. They have been used in dropsy, also in a powder as an astringent to check bleeding. Culpepper say’s “the bark and leaves are good used as fomentations for broken bones and such members as are out of joint”. He also considered the berries to be curative of colic. Care needs to be taken though, for the berries can be poisonous to children. Birdlime used to catch birds and other insects is made from the bark when stripped off young shoots and fermented. The bark is stripped off during midsummer and steeped in clean water, then boiled till it separates into layers. When this happens the inner green portion is laid up in small heaps till fermentation begins. After about a fortnight it turns into a sticky gooey substance, which is then pounded into a paste, washed and laid by again to continue fermenting. When done it is mixed with an oily substance like goose-fat and is ready for use. Very little is now made in this country but of old in the Lake Districts of the north of England, Holly was so abundant that birdlime was made in large quantities and shipped to the East Indies for destroying insects. The leaves of the Holly were used in the Black Forest as a substitute for tea. In Brazil “Paraguay Tea” is made from the dried leaves and young shoots of another species of Holly called (Ilex Paraguayensis), which grows in South America. Other types used to make tea are (Ilex Gongonha) and (Ilex Theezans), which like the (Ilex Paraguayensis), were also valuable diuretics and diaphoretics. The leaves of (Ilex Paraguayensis) and several others are also used by dyers, as are the unripe fruits of (Ilex Macoucoua) for they contain tannin. Acting something like galls when bruised in a ferruginous mud, they were used in dyeing cotton. Magickal Uses: As with most other trees the Holly was revered for its protective qualities. The Holly guards against lightening, poisoning and mischievous spirits, and when planted around the home it protects the inhabitants from evil sorcerers. When confronted by wild animals throwing a stick of Holly at them would make them lie down and leave you alone. A piece of Holly carried on your person is said to promote good luck, particularly in men for the Holly is a male plant (the Ivy its corresponding female). Holly leaves wrapped in an appropriately colored cloth to protect against its needles, placed under your pillow will make your dreams come true. Some old stories tell us that when winter came the old druids advised the people to take Holly into their homes to shelter the elves and fairies who could join mortals at this time without causing them harm, but these stories also tell of a warning, to make sure and remove the Holly entirely before the eve of Imbolc, for to leave just one leaf in the house would cause misfortune. An old Scottish traditions says that no branch should be cut from a Holly tree, but rather that it be pulled free in a method considered fit from sacred tree. It was also considered unlucky to fell a Holly tree or burn the green skinned Holly. Yet luck was increased if a small branch was kept from a Yule decoration and hung on the outside of the house where it would protect against lightening. In ritual uses, Holly is associated with the death and rebirth symbolism of winter. Holly also symbolizes holiness, consecration, material gain, physical revenge, beauty, and immortality, as well as peace, goodwill and health. It can be used ritually to aid and help with a person’s ability to cope with death, and to ease their sleep with peaceful dreams. The Holly has always been associated with mid winter festivals and was used in old Celtic traditions for celebrating the sun gods birth at the winter solstice. The wood of the Holly tree burns very hot and its charcoal was used to forge the swords, knives and tools necessary for survival and protection. The old smithies and weapon-makers were considered to be great magicians for their ability to use the elements of fire and earth to create these tools. For this reason the druids associated Holly with the element of fire. In the ogham alphabet they called the Holly “Tinne”, which is thought to mean “fire” derived from the word “tinder”, in association with the Holly’s timber used in the fires of the old smithies. In today’s rituals, Holly is used for magick associated with the element of fire and Holly incense is used to consecrate the magickal knife (athame). The Holly tree is known by several folk names: Hulm, Holme, Holme chase, Christ’s thorn, Hulver bush, Bat’s wings, Tinne and Holy tree. Its deity associations are Tannus, Taranis and Thor. Its gender type is Masculine. Its planetary ruler is Mars and its associated element is Fire. Holly is used to attract the powers needed for: Protection, Healing, Peace, Goodwill, Luck and anything to do with the element Fire. Astrologically Holly people (i.e. those people born in the month of June) are often very religious. They come alive at winter and delight in the cold that most people dislike. Holly people are very balanced in a fight if the cause is just. They are bearers of truth and demand truth from their friends and associates. Holly people are honest, hardworking and very tolerant of situations. They tend to see both sides in an argument but will choose a side if they have to. They tend to be spiritually advanced and yet may be clueless to being that way. They can also be showy at times and seek attention.

The Oak tree (Quercus robur) was thought to have been a primary focus of worship long before the Druids of ancient times give prevalence and significance to other trees. It was believed that the oak was the first tree created by god and its fruit, the Acorn, the first food of mankind. The English or Common Oak was for many centuries the main forest tree of England and is intimately bound up in its history and culture. As an emblem of Britain a spray of oak was engraved on the sides of our coins, the old sixpence and shilling pieces bore it, then later it was replaced by the British lion. The Oak today is widely cultivated and distributed across Europe and the Northern Hemisphere, but while British forests are somewhat depleted, it is still regarded quintessentially English. Over the centuries the oak has been subjected to a good deal of variation and now there are over 400 hundred species. Oaks can now be found as far afield as Java, in the Mountains of Mexico and in South America. In Britain our parks and once proud forests are slowly being eroded and planted with a growing number of oaks from foreign origins. The two principal varieties native to England are the English or Common oak (Quercus pedunculata) and the Sessile or Durmast Oak (Quercus sessiliflora). The Common oak is distinguished by having acorns in ones and twos attached to its twigs by long stalks, the leaves having scarcely any stalk at all. The Sessile’ leaves are bigger and are borne on long stalks while its acorns are attached to the bough instead of on stalks. The Sessile variety of oak is generally found in the lower parts of Britain and North Wales, and doesn’t live as long as the Common Oak. Its wood has a straighter fibre and finer grain, and is generally thought to be less tough and less resisting than the Common oak. Of the many foreign oaks now grown in Britain, the longest established variety is the Evergreen or Holm Oak (Quercus ilex), which is common to the south of England and Europe. “Holm” is thought to be Anglo-Saxon for holly. Adding to this association the Holm is often found growing in close proximity to holly, as well as sporting holly shaped leaves. The Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) is the most prolific of the foreign oaks introduce into Britain. This is a beautiful tall tree, which when fully grown produces its acorns in very mossy cups. The oak in general is a slow growing tree of imposing stature and lives to an incredible age. On average the tree will reach heights of 110 feet (33 meters) with girths of some 30 – 40 feet (9 – 12 meters) but there have been some notable exceptions down through the centuries. The most famous perhaps is the Major Oak in Sherwood Forest, once associated with Robin Hood. Still standing today though it requires support to prevent its collapse, it measures 64 feet (20 meters) around its girth. The Fairlop Oak in Hainault Forest measured 36 feet in girth, the spread of its branches extending above it reach out to some 300 feet in circumference. The trunk of the Newland Oak in Gloucestershire measured 46 feet 4 inches at 1 foot from the ground. The Courthorpe Oak in Yorkshire reportedly had the extraordinary girth of 70 feet, and tales from history tell us that King Arthur's Round Table was made from a single slice of oak, cut from an enormous bole. Of old, the strength and elasticity of the oak made it particularly valuable for house building and shipbuilding. The “Wooden Walls of England” is an old phrase of many connotations; one meaning refers to the stately homes of England which gave rise to another phrase “hearts of oak”, for the Englishman literally made his home from oak. Huge oaken beams were used in their construction and many of its rooms were paneled in fancy oak carvings, the buildings were secured by solid oak doors to keep out intruders and unwanted visitors. Oak was also used in the construction of churches and cathedrals. The roof beams of Westminster Abbey are of Sessile oak. The “Wooden Walls of England” also refers to the coastal defenses of England, “the forts and castles” constructed to protect us from invasion, and the “ships made of oak” used in defense against the Spanish Armada. The oaks of the Forest of Dean provided much of the material used and Philip of Spain is said to have declared, “that all the oaks of the forest must be destroyed if victory is to be achieved”. This he failed to do but some two centuries later, so many of its trees had been felled and dispatched to naval dockyards for use in building ships, that Nelson drew up a special petition to the Crown advising the need to replant the countries forests with oaks. After the Oak has passed its first century, it increases by less than an inch a year. This slowness of its growth matures the wood in such a fashion that it becomes practically indestructible. As a timber the most valued qualities of the Oak are its hardness and toughness. While the Ebony tree may be harder, the Yew and Ash tree tougher, none of these trees possess both these qualities to such a degree as the English Oak. Although no longer used for the building of ships of war, it is still in great demand for other purposes, sharing with Ash in the making of railway carriages and other forms of transport. As well as its strength for building purposes, the oak is much prized for the beauty of its grain and texture, and the richness of its coloring after polishing. As such it has always been a favorite wood of carpenters and cabinetmakers for use in paneling, doors and furniture. Beautiful cupboards, chests, tables and chairs were made of oak, and due to the woods durability many of these have survived down through the centuries. Initially pale brown in color, oak wood darkens with age. Other uses of oak from olden times were the fighting clubs of ancient man, the hammers and long boats of the Vikings, and hafts for daggers and knives were made from its roots. Barrels and casks were also made from oak to store liqueur, wines and spirits, it being impervious to the effects of alcohol. Coffins were made of oak by using large sections of the trunk, these were split lengthwise and hollowed out to contain the body, but this was only done for state funerals or people of great stature and importance. The shrine of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey is of Purbeck marble, but the tomb-chest or coffin (circa 1510) is of oak outlasting the changes of some 700 years. Folklore and Myths: Since time began the oak was revered by many cultures, the Greeks held it sacred, the Romans dedicated it to Jupiter, and the Druids venerated it. The Greek historian Herodotus (often called the “father of history” 484? - 425? BC.) reported that the sacred oak grove at Dodona had the greatest reputation for the gifts of prophecy. Situated at the foot of Mt. Tomarus, Dodona was the oldest and most hallowed sanctuary in Greece. An ancient legend tells of two black doves that flew from the Egyptian city of Thebes, one flew to the Libyan Ammon and the other flew to Dodona. Each alighted on an oak tree and so began the oracular oak cults dedicated to the Gods and Goddesses. The cult at Dodona was dedicated to the goddess Dione (Diana) but was later seized by Zeus who claimed it for his own, though he retained the services of her priestesses to read his oracles. This they did listening to the cooing of black doves, the rustle of the oaks leaves in the wind, or the clanging of vessels hung in the trees branches to produce sound. They claimed that within the sounds could be heard the voice of Zeus. The most famous of Zeus’ interpreters was an old priestess called Pelias, who prophesied Zeus’ messages from a sacred spring at the foot of a giant oak in the grove at Dodona. The voice of Zeus was also heard in the sounds of thunder, and it was believed that more thunderstorms raged over Dodona than anywhere else in the classical world. The oak tree due to its enormous size and low electrical resistance, attracts and is struck by lightening more so than any other tree species, and so the oak became associated with the gods of thunder. Zeus’ Roman counter part Jupiter, was also worshiped as a god of thunder and had control over rain, storms and lightening. It was said he revealed the future to mankind by the flight of birds. Birds were known as the “messengers of the gods” and the oak with it massive frame and huge limbs is the natural resting place and home to many types of birds, as such the oak became associated with Protection, Strength, Stability and Comfort. In ancient times great oak forests covered much of Britain and Western Europe and many sacred holy groves were formed in them for worship, dedicated to the gods by the many different cultures that inhabited them. Growing in close proximity to each other, the oaks of the forest were often struck by lightening and visibly hit by the “fires from heaven” as it cracked and flashed overhead. To the ancients this was a channel through which the power of the thunder gods reached down to mankind and so the oak became associated with the element of fire. The god most associated with the oak tree is Thor (also known as: Thorr, Thunor, Thonar, Donar, Donner, Thur, Thunar, or Thunaer), who in Norse mythology was the supreme god of thunder and the sky. Thor was the eldest son of Odin, and was second only to him in the hierarchy of the Norse pantheon. He was also one of the most popular of the gods due to his relationship with mankind. Thor is often depicted as a tall, muscular and vigorous man with a red beard. He had an enormous appetite and his ability to eat and drink great quantities is featured in several of his legends. Thor was the principal champion of the gods and the chief protector of humans against giants, trolls, demons and other evil beings. His booming voice and flashing eyes could incite terror in his enemies. He was thought to be good-natured, courageous, benevolent, valiant and always ready to fight to help mankind, but he was also easily irritated and when roused to anger was apt to smash his adversaries to death with a single blow from “Mjolnir” his magical hammer. Thor was widely worshiped by Norse warriors but was also revered by farmers and peasants because of his capacity to create rain for the crops. Mjolnir the magical hammer was reputedly made by dwarves from the wood of a sacred oak tree, and not only represented the destructive power of the storms Thor created (the fires from heaven), but its image was used as a fertility symbol in marriages (in its connection with rain and crops) and in funerals (as a symbol of death and rebirth), and for accepting newborn children into the community (as a symbol of strength and protection). Such was he revered that the fifth day of the week 'Thursday' (Thor’s day) was named after him. When traveling Thor rode in a chariot made from oak drawn by two goats, Tanngnjostr (Tooth-gnasher) and Tanngrisnir (Tooth-grinder), and when moving across the heavens dispensing weather, it produced the rumblings of thunder and sparks of lightening from its wheels. Thor and his followers undertook many expeditions to Jotunheim (Iceland) the land of the frost giants, and there erected high-seated pillars of oak. These they used to hallow new ground enabling the gods to protect their people in new lands. Thor fought many legendary battles against the frost giants defending and protecting mankind as well as the gods. His greatest adversary was the World Serpent called “Jormungand” whose many coils encircled the world. After many battles between them which neither won, they were destined to meet and fight for a final time at “Ragnarok” (the mythical end of the world). At that fatal meeting Thor, the best fighter amongst the gods, succeeded in killing the serpent. However being busy with his own fight, he was too late to aid his father Odin who died fighting the fierce wolf Fenrir. After killing the serpent Thor stepped back and died himself from the poison the serpent had spat at him. Oak through the ages was revered by many cultures particularly for its protective qualities, and in Britain it still stands proud as the “King of the Forest”. In early Celtic times certain oaks were marked with a protective symbol, a circle divided into four equal parts (symbolic of the four elements - Earth, Air, Fire and Water), this was probably a forerunner of the magic pentacle (an up-right five pointed star in-side a circle, symbolic of the four elements plus “spirit”). Most likely this was an old druidic custom for the druids revered the oak above all other trees, believing it hosted the energy, power and strength of their gods. Due to its size and longevity the oak was known as the “Garden in the Forest”, for it attracts the growth of various forms of plant life. Normally the trunk of the oak is covered in fungus, particularly stinkhorn and lichen, which grow alongside tendrils of ivy, but just occasionally mistletoe will also grow on it. When this happened the oak became especially sacred for the white berries of the mistletoe were thought to represent the sperm of the gods, and so the oak became associated with the males pro creative qualities and fertility. Other myths and legends involving the oak include “Merlin”, the mystical wizard, magician and seer who helped King Arthur. It was believed that Merlin was born in Carmarthen in Wales, and there worked his magick in a grove of oaks supposedly using the topmost branch of an oak tree as his wand. An old oak that used to stand in Priory Street was credited to him called “Merlin’s Oak”, but this has since been removed. Robin Hood the outlaw, another legend, together with his followers reportedly roamed the green depths of Sherwood Forest near Nottingham. There they lived a carefree life passing away the time playing games of archery and hunting the king's deer. Any rich person passing through the forest was robed of their riches, the spoils of which they shared with the poor. The “Major Oak” a massive tree still standing today is said to have been the meeting place of his merry band of men. According to history, the oak tree was a place of worship where the people could be preached too, the trees used for this purpose became known as “Gospel Oaks”. Edward the Confessor is said to have preached from under a gospel oak in Hampstead in order to gain support for his kingdom. During his reign Edward was noted for his weakness as a ruler and his piety as a man, but his great legacy to England was Westminster Abbey the roof beams of which (and still are) made from oak. Also according to history Charles II hid in an oak tree after his defeat by Cromwell during the Battle of Worcester in 1651, thereafter the oak was given the name “Royal Oak”. On his return to the crown after ten years in exile, Charles made his birthday a public holiday and called it “Royal Oak Day”. The people celebrated, oak sprigs and leaves were gathered and used to decorated hats and clothing, boughs were tied to the doors of houses symbolically bring back luck, prosperity and fertility, and an Oak Man was dressed up oak leaves and danced around the streets before claiming his May Queen. Today many of these traditions have been absorbed into the Mayday celebrations, and are still enacted each May around the country. In Ireland, “St Bridget” (circa 453? - 523?) is one of the three patron saints. According to Celtic lore she founded Ireland's first nunnery for holy women at Kildare, called the “Cell of Oak”. It is thought that St Bridget evolved from the goddess Briget (also known as Brigid, Bridhe, Brigantia, Bridgadu), a solar goddess who prophesied and healed by virtue of the waters of inspiration. The nuns of Kildare were said to have burned acorns on perpetual fires for food and heat. Back in England, the spirit of “Herne the Hunter” is believed to inhabit an ancient oak tree. He was the oak-god of southern Britain (often depicted wearing antler-horns) who leads the legendary Wild Hunts. His spirit is said to haunt Windsor Forest. Bark: Oak bark is grey-brown in colour and distinctly gnarled and furrowed. It contains some 15 – 20 per cent of tannin, and is used universally for tanning leather as well as making dyes. The bark is collected from the tree normally during April and May it being easier to strip at this time before the leaf buds open and its sap begins to flow again. For dyeing purposes an infusion of the oak bark mixed with a small quantity of copperas yields a dye of a purplish color, and was used by Scottish Highlanders to dye woolens and yarn. Mixed with “alum” it produces a brown dye, with “salt of iron” a black dye, and with “salt of tin” a yellow dye. In North America the (Quercus tinctoria) species of oak produces (Quercitron Bark), which is used for dyeing yellow, and the bark from the (Quercus prinus) species produces a red dye that Native American Indians used to dye their skins red. Oak sawdust was once used for dyeing corduroys and velveteen’s, and also for tanning, but it was found to be inferior to bark for these purposes. After the oak bark has been used for tanning, gardeners then use it to make a decoction called “Tan”. Tan is used to cover new plantings encouraging them to grow due to the warmth it generates. However care needs to be taken for it sometimes favors the growth of fungi, harmful to certain plants. Tan is also used as a cover for racetracks and circus rings, and as an adulteration of chicory and coffee. In Brittany tan compressed into cakes was used as fuel. Leaves, Fruit and Flowers: The oak can takes some 60 years to mature and produce its first full crop of fruit. Depending on seasonal conditions, tufts of pale green leaves appear on short stalks (English or Common oak) during April or May, which by June turn dark green and thick with a strong central vein and deeply lobed edges. Should the young leaves be damaged by frost or destroyed by insects, the oak has a canny ability to re-leaf itself. In August at the height of the summer when most other trees are wilting from the heat, the oak produces a new leaf called “Lammas shoots” thus adding new color and freshness to the tree. These new leafy shoots are golden-pink when young, turning from pale to dark green as they harden. In autumn the oak tree is at its most majestic as its leaves change color again turning from dark green to various shades of yellow, orange, russet and a pale golden brown. The leaves sometime stay on the tree until the following spring or until the new buds forming for the next year push them off. In April together with the leaves, the flowers of the oak form in clusters of male and female catkins. By May the males have grown in size to 1 - 3 inches, becoming long and pendulous and filled with pollen. At this stage the female catkins open as upright flowers awaiting pollination from the males. Each has cup-shaped scaly involucres containing the seed vessels which produce as fruit an acorn 1/2 to 1 inch long. The acorn ripens in the autumn changing color from green to pale yellow to dark olive brown. Once ripe the oak drops its fruit providing food in abundance for many of the forests animals. Left uneaten, the acorn will sprout tiny shoots and root in any fertile earth, thus producing a new sapling tree and the cycle of life and growth begins again. In time of old the acorn was a valued source of food for livestock, and particularly for feeding swine. There was also much famine in England during those times and the starving peasantry was thankful for a share, even making bread from it. This naturally depleted the crops resources and as land was measured and valued for its swine feeding capabilities, by the end of the seventh century special laws were enacted called pawnage or pannage, relating to the feeding of swine. This was later recorded in the Domesday Book, (the record of a survey ordered by William the Conqueror (1086) to determine economic conditions in England). Acorns contain a substantial proportion of carbohydrate and fat, and in many country districts are still collected in sacks and given to pigs, but they must also be mixed with other vegetable food to counteract their binding properties. Medicinal uses: Most parts of the tree are used medicinally and its healing effects are many and varied. The distilled water of the oak leaf bud can be taken internally or used externally to relieve minor inflammations. Bruised oak leaves applied externally to wounds and hemorrhoids will also help reduce and ease inflammation. The bark of the tree is the part most used in medicine being tonic, astringent and antiseptic. As with other astringents it is recommended for use in agues and hemorrhages. The medicinal qualities of the bark can be extracted both by water and by spirit. As a decoction it has a strong astringent and bitter taste with a slightly aromatic odor. To make it, collect some bark (best in the spring April or May) from some young trees and dry it in the sun before chopping it. Use 1 oz. of bark in a quart of water and boil it down to a pint. It can then be taken in a wineglass measure or dose, and used as a gargle mouthwash for chronic sore throats, or applied locally to bleeding gums and piles. Also used in hot baths for chilblains and frostbite or as a hot compress for inflamed glands, hernias and hemorrhoids. A stronger decoction taken by the spoonful is useful in chronic diarrhea and dysentery. Oak bark when finely ground and powdered makes a remedial snuff that can be inhaled to arrest nosebleeds. It has also proved beneficial in the early stages of consumption. Sprinkled onto bed sheets it will help to alleviate bedsores. A pinch of powered oak bark mixed with honey and taken in the mornings will help and aid ladies with menstrual problems. Ground and powdered acorns taken with water was considered a useful tonic for diarrhea, and a decoction of acorns and oak bark made with milk, was used as an antidote to poisonous herbs and medicines. In old times, the thin skin of the acorn was used to cover open cuts or wounds, and ground and powdered acorns taken in wine was considered a good diuretic. Magical Uses: Due to the oaks many associations and characteristics, it is used symbolically on many ritual occasions, for instance in February during the festival of Imbolc, the spirits of the oak tree can be invoked to aid and lend strength to the goddess as she sleeps having given birth to the new god. It can also be asked to aid and acknowledge the new God as he grows in strength to become the new light of the year. In March at the festival of Ostara (the Spring Equinox) when the Goddess returns from the Underworld, the oak tree can be invoked to aid her as she blankets the earth with fertility bringing new life to the lands and pastures, also to lend strength to the new god as he stretches and grows to maturity inducing all living creatures out of hibernation to mate and reproduce. The Beltane festival in May marks the courtship of the Goddess and God and the renewal of the ancient marriage of polarity. The oak tree is invoked for its associations with weddings and fertility. In June, Litha the Summer Solstice festival embraces the beginning of summer when earth is awash with the fertility of the Goddess and God. The oak is again invoked for its associations with the gods of thunder and rain to aid the growth of crops. At the Lammas festival in August it’s the time of the first harvest and the time when the plants of spring begin to shrivel and die. At this time the oak is called for its regenerative powers, for as the other plants begin to wither and die the oak produces its Lammas shoots in conformation that the cycle of life will continue. September (Mabon) is the Autumn Equinox and completes the harvest begun at Lammas. Nature declines and draws back its bounty in readiness for the winter and it’s time of rest. At this time the oak is revered for now it drops it own harvest of acorns, these then feed and nourish the forest animals as they stock their larders ready for hibernation and the bleak cold months of the coming winter. The God now dies as a willing sacrifice and descends into the earth to the Underworld, there to await his renewal and rebirth by the Goddess. The oak trees spirits can be invoked and all the trees attributes called upon to ease the gods decent with strength, courage and comfort while aiding the goddess with its male pro creative qualities and powers of fertility. The protective qualities of the oak were well known and used in magick, and many of the old customs are still practiced in country villages. Carrying a small piece of oak on your person will bring about a sense of security and well-being as well as protection from harm. Two twigs of oak tied together with red thread to form an equal armed cross is an age old talisman that can be worn or hung up in the home for protection, strength and security against evil. Acorns placed on window-ledges will guard against lightening strikes. As the oak tree is so firmly planted and deep-rooted it symbolizes permanency, and as our feet are constantly in touch with the ground this symbolism can be used magically to aid our feet. Before going on a long journey, be it in your own country or abroad, soak your feet in a footbath infusion of oak bark and leaves. This will not only relieve weary feet, but also guide you on your journey and ensure you’re save return. To catch a falling oak leaf will bring you luck and prosperity, and you shall suffer no colds throughout the winter. If someone is sick or poorly in the home, place an oak log on the fire to warm the house; it will help to “draw-off” the illness. Carrying an acorn is thought to guard against illness and pain, it is also thought to aid longevity and preserve youthfulness. The acorn with its symbolic representation of the glans penis was much used in love magick and fertility rites, for which use phallic shaped wands were made and tipped with an acorn. In olden days young women would place two acorns in a bowl of water to find out if she had found true love, if they moved together “yes” if they moved apart “no”. The ancients and druids of old used the oak tree for divination purposes when planning the next seasons farming work. By carefully studying the leafing sequences of different trees, they could determine when to plant the next seasons crops. An old proverb relating to this has been passed down through the centuries and is still used to predict the weather in many country districts: “If the Oak's before the Ash, Then you'll only get a splash; If the Ash before the Oak, Then you might expect a soak.” Another more precise method of divination is the use of “oak galls” or “oak apples” as they are commonly known. I can do no better here than to quote a paragraph from one of the many books I have used to compile this writing, a brilliant book called “Tree Wisdom” in which “Jacqueline Memory Paterson” quotes from “Gerard” who states: “Galls were broken into at specific times of the year (probably spring and autumn) and what was found in them foretold the sequence of the coming seasons. If an ant was found inside the gall it foretold plenty of grain to come, if a spider, there would be “a pestilence among men”, if a white worm or maggot, there would be a “murrain” of beasts or cattle. If the worm flew away (presumably found at its metamorphic stage of becoming a gall-wasp or flying insect), it signified war, if the worm crept, it foretold scarceness of harvest, and if it turned about, it foreshadowed the plague. Such a record also gives us an indication of the harsh concerns of earlier times.” Galls: The longevity of the oak and its statuesque nature makes it a veritable “garden in the forest”. Animals, birds, plant life, fungi and insects of all kinds find a home within its massive frame. Of all the insects that find sanctuary, the most persistent and harmful is the “gall wasp”. The gall wasp (Cynipidaie) is a tiny hymenopteran insect that attacks the tree and lays its eggs. The eggs develop into larva, which in turn produces the galls. The galls (commonly called oak apples) appear sometime on the leaves but mainly on the bare branches of the tree during winter. Looking like hard brown balls at the end of its twigs and feeding on the sap of the tree, they do much damage and mischief to the tree by checking and distorting its growth. The larva that hatches from the eggs secrets a peculiar fluid, this stimulates the defensive mechanism of the tree to produce an abnormal growth resulting in the knotted knees and twisted elbows typical of the tree we see today. The larva now enclosed in a knotty spherical mass produced by the trees defenses, begins to feed off the trees natural resources such as starch and other nutritive material. The growth of the gall continues so long as the egg or larva lives, or reaches maturity and passes into a chrysalis from which the fully developed gall wasp emerges and escapes into the air through a hole bored with its mandibles in the side of the gall. Galls are used commercially in the preparation of gallic acid and tannic acid, and are extensively used in tanning and dyeing as well as for the manufacture of ink. The best galls come from Asiatic Turkey and are Aleppo galls from the (Quercus infectoria). They are also known as Mecca Galls or Sodom Apples, “the fruit that never comes to ripeness - the fruit so pleasant to the eye and so bitter to the taste”. In commerce they are simply known as blue or green galls. The main constituents of Aleppo galls are 50 to 70 per cent of gallotannic acid, 2 to 4 per cent of gallic acid, mucilage, sugar, resin and an insoluble matter called lignin. Other commercial galls are imported from Persia and to a lesser extent from Greece. If collected before the insects escape, those of good quality are hard and heavy and without perforations. They are dark bluish-green or olive green in color and nearly spherical in shape, measuring 12 to 18 mm. in diameter. These are the blue and green galls known in commerce. If collected after the insects have escaped they have a pale yellowish-brown hue, are spongy and lighter in weight and are perforated near the center with a small hole. These are known in commerce as white galls. White galls contain less gallotannic acid than the blue or green galls. The English oak galls or oak apples are smooth, globular and brown. They are usually perforated and much less astringent than Aleppo galls containing only 15 to 20 per cent of gallotannic acid. As such they have no real commercial value. Medicinally galls are the most powerful of all vegetable astringents. It is used as a tincture internally in cases of dysentery, diarrhea and cholera, and as an injection in gonorrhea and leucorrhea. Preparations of gall are usually applied as a local astringent externally, mainly as a gall ointment (1 oz. of powdered galls and 4 oz. of benzoated lard) and applied to painful hemorrhoids. It can also be used to arrest hemorrhages from the nose and gums. An infusion may be used as a gargle for inflamed tonsils etc. The oak is known by many folk names such as: Father of the Woods, King of the Forests, Royal Oak, Tree of Britain, White Oak, Duir, Jove’s Nuts, Gospel Oak and Juglan. Its deity associations are with: Hecate, Dione, Diana, Rhea, Cybele, Circe, Athene, Demeter, Bridgid, Bridhe, St Briget, Blodeuwedd and Cerridwen. Zeus, Hercules, Pan, Jehovah, Esus, Odin, Thor, Dagda, Herne and Janus. Its planet ruler is Jupiter, with close associations to the Sun. Its associated element is Fire. It is used to attract the powers needed for: Protection, Health and Healing, Fertility, Luck, Money, Joviality and Potency. Astrologically oak people (i.e. those who are born during the month of May) are robust, courageous, strong, unrelenting, independent and sensible. They do not like change, keep their feet on the ground, and are people of action. Even when faced with over riding stress, hurt or pain, oak people come out on top better and stronger and more grounded than before. Instead of bending under stress, hurt and pain, they adapt and grow until they overcome it.

The Hawthorn tree (Crataegus oxacantha) is one of the sacred trees of Wicca/Witchcraft and is associated with the spring celebrations. The main spring celebration is that of May Day which honors the sun god Belenus. His festival commenced on the first day the hawthorn blossoms opened, but today it is now celebrated on the 1st of May. Worldwide there is some 1,000 species of hawthorn. Here in Britain there are two main types known as the English hawthorn and Common hawthorn. In France it is known as L'épine noble and in Germany Hagedorn. Its botanical name (Crataegus Oxyacantha) is derived from the Greek kratos meaning hardness (of the wood), oxcus (sharp) and akantha (a thorn). The German name of Hagedorn, meaning Hedgethorn, tells us that from a very early period the Germans divided their land into plots by hedges. The word “haw” is also an old word for hedge. Its folk name Whitethorn comes from the whiteness of its bark and Quick from it’s growing as a quick and living hedge, which was used instead of the palings of dead wood. The tree will attain a height of 30 feet (9 meters) and lives to a great age sometimes to over 400 years. It possesses a single seed-vessel to each blossom producing a separate fruit, which when ripe is a brilliant red, this in miniature is a stony apple. In some districts these mealy red fruits are called Pixie Pears, Cuckoo's Beads and Chucky Cheese. Carrion insects mostly fertilize the flowers and the suggestion of decomposition in its perfume, attracts those insects that lay their eggs and hatch out their larvae in decaying animal matter. The wood of the hawthorn was used for making small articles for its wood has a fine grain and takes a beautiful polish. The root-wood was used for making boxes and combs. It also makes excellent fuel, making the hottest wood-fire known, and it used to be considered more desirable than Oak for oven-heating. Charcoal made from it has been said to melt pig-iron without the aid of a blast. The stock of the hawthorn is employed not only for grafting varieties of its own species, but also for several of the garden fruits closely allied to it, such as the medlar and pear. Folklore and Myths: In Irish folklore the hawthorn, or whitethorn, is also sometimes referred to as the fairy bush, and it was considered bad luck to cut it in fear of offending the fairies that inhabit the tree. However, during the May Day celebrations the collecting of the sprigs and flowers was allowed for use in the festivities, after which they were place in the home to banish all evil influences. In Teutonic lore, the hawthorn had an entirely different meaning, to them the hawthorn was a symbol of death and its wood was used for funeral pyres. In ancient Greece, crowns of hawthorn blossoms were made for wedding couples, and the wedding party all carried burning torches of hawthorn. The Roman goddess Cardea, who presided over marriage and childbirth, was associated with the hawthorn. She was also known as the "White Goddess" and was the mistress of Janus who guarded all doorways and portals, as such Cardea became known as the “hinge of the door of the year”. Her primary symbol was the hawthorn branch and her festival was celebrated in May. In Italian iconography she is depicted carrying a bough of hawthorn as a protective emblem. This led to the practice of placing hawthorn leaves in the cradles of newborn children for protection. The hawthorn is often referred to in verse by the phase “by oak, ash, and thorn” (the “thorn” referring to that of the hawthorn tree) and is used as a blessing during ritual, or to affirm a charge of power in spellcraft. In folklore the oak, ash, and thorn have all been associated with portals into the realm of the fairies. In this regard, the hawthorn in its connection with Cardea as the “hinge on the door” into the fairy realm became the guardian and protector of the entrances to the oak and ash portals, and unless the hawthorn allowed access to the doorways, the fairy realm remained unseen. Of old, it was the practice to plant hawthorn around oak and ash tree groves in order to protect them from damage by storms or grazing cattle. Medicinal uses: In common with other members of the Prunus and Pyrus groups of the order Rosaceae, the Hawthorn contains Amyddalin. Its bark contains the alkaloid Crataegin, which is isolated in grayish-white crystals that are bitter in taste and soluble in water. The hawthorn has been used as a sedative, an anti-spasmodic and a diuretic, and is a natural regulator of arterial blood pressure. Known as “valerian of the heart”, the hawthorn was most valued as a heart stimulant, as such it was mainly used as a cardiac tonic in functional heart troubles. As a useful diuretic it was used in dropsy and in kidney troubles. The flowers and berries are astringent and useful in decoctions to cure sore throats. The leaves have been used as an adulterant for tea, and an excellent liqueur brandy is made from its berries. The Hawthorn is known by many folk names such as: May, Mayblossom, May Bush, Mayflower, Quick, Thorn, Whitethorn, Haw, Hazels, Huath, Gazels, Halves, Hagthorn, Ladies’ Meat, Bread and Cheese Tree and Tree of Chastity. Its deity associations are with: Cardea, Flora and Hyman. Its gender type is Masculine. Its planet ruler is Mars. Its associated element is Fire. It is used to attract the powers needed for: Health, Fertility, Chastity, Weddings, Protection and Death. Astrologically hawthorn people (i.e. those who are born during the month April) are stubborn but loving people and tend to be very beautiful in youth. They bring out the worst in their friends but not in a bad way, more as a way of helping them to root out bad habits and attitudes. They are supportive and protective of all they consider to be family. They can be tough to work with and have a single-minded attitude. They do not joke around but attend only to the business at hand, which makes them very shrewd business people. They are very dependable and stable, and won’t go back on their words.

The Willow tree (Salix alba) has long had associations with Wicca/Witchcraft and figures in the folklore and mythology of many cultures. The botanical name of the Willow 'Salix' comes from the Celtic word 'sal' - meaning near, and “lis” - meaning water. Because the Willow grows rapidly and has deep tough roots, they are widely planted to check soil erosion particularly on the banks of rivers and streams. It also flourishes in the moist ground found in many temperate regions throughout the world. As the Alder tree is known as the 'King of the Waters' so the Willow became known as its 'Queen'. The Willow tree comprises more than 300 shrubs or trees of the Salicaceae family and varies in height from a few inches to 70-80 ft (21-24 meters). Some of the more common types to be found are: the Black Willow (Salix nigra) named for its dark bark. The Pussy Willow also known as Goat Willow (S. discolor) usually grown as a shrub along the banks of streams, its furry catkins herald the coming of spring and are formed before its leaves appear. The tall White Willow (S. alba) is commonly found in cultivated ground and is probably a descendant of the White Willow of Europe. This is the largest of the Willows growing to over 75 ft (23 meters) with a girth of some 20 ft or more (6 meters); its ash-gray silky leaves give the tree its white appearance. The Weeping Willow (S. babylonica) is believed to have originated in China and often appears in Chinese art. Its beauty makes it a favorite ornamental tree in gardens and parks, but while it is widely cultivated for its beauty, it has practically no commercial value. Perhaps the most commercial of the Willows are those of the genus called Osiers and a significant industry has developed from the use of its wood. The Osiers include the Common Osier or Basket Willow (S. viminalis) and the Purple Willow (S. purpurea). They furnish pliable shoots and twigs that are used in Europe for basket making and wickerwork. The wood of the Willow is white, soft and light but also tough and elastic, and is not given to splintering when subjected to strain. It is used for making tool handles, shipping containers, baseballs and cricket bats, and because it is relatively nonflammable for the brake blocks of railway stock. The bark of the White Willow is thick, gnarled, rough and furrowed, and is the color of pale greeny-brown. The leaves of the Willow are mostly long and narrow and those of the White Willow are two-tone in color, being greeny-gray on top and ivory-white underneath. This makes them easily recognizable for when the wind blows it gives the impression of rippling silvery waves in motion on water. Willows flower and leaf during May, sometimes together or sometimes separately, flower before leaf. Male and female flowers grow on separate trees relying on the wind and insects for pollination. It flowers in the form of catkins of which the male flower is the prettiest. Folklore and Myths: The Willow tree is particularly rich in folklore and mythology, and has many associations with gods and goddesses, such like: Proserpina, Orpheus, Hecate, Circe, Belenus, Artemis and Mercury. One of the main properties of the Willow is fertility, and due to its slender branches and narrow leaves it also became associated with the serpent; the serpent in turn was sacred to the goddess Proserpina. In Athens it was an ancient custom of the priests of Asclepius to place Willow branches in the beds of infertile women, this in the belief that it would draw the mystical serpents from the Underworld and cure them, the connection being the phallic symbolism of the snake form itself. However in later times this was turned around, and the Willow became protective of snakes by driving them away. Asclepius himself was depicted with a serpent wrapped around one arm, and so came the belief that he had power over snakes. The ancient Spartan fertility rites of the goddess Artemis also demonstrates the Willows connection with fertility and fecundity. Here male celebrants were tied to the tree’s trunk with Willow thongs, they were then flogged until the lashes produced an erotic reaction and they ejaculated fertilizing the land with their seed and blood. The Willow was also sacred to poets, for the sound of the wind through the Willow is said to have a potent influence on the mind which results in inspiration. Orpheus the Greeks most celebrated poet is said to have received his gifts of eloquence and communication from the Willow by carrying its branches with him while journeying through the Underworld. Due to his talents as a poet the god Apollo presented him with a lyre and asked him to make music, he in turn instructed the Muses in its use. It was said that when he played music he not only enchanted wild beasts, but also that the trees and rocks of Mount Olympus moved from their places to follow the sounds of his harp. Upon his death with the intercession of Apollo and the Muses, Zeus placed the lyre of Orpheus amongst the stars. Orpheus was depicted in bas-relief in the temple at Delphi leaning against a Willow tree touching its branches. There is a darker side to the Willow however, for it is also associated with grief and death. The Greek sorceress Circe is said to have had a riverside cemetery planted with Willow trees dedicated to Hecate and her moon magic. Here male corpses were wrapped in un-tanned ox-hides and left exposed in the tops of the trees for the elements to claim and the birds to eat. From this association with grief and death came the practice of placing Willow branches in the coffins of the departed, and the planting of young saplings on their graves. Old folklore advises that to plant a young Willow and watch it grow, would ease the passage of your soul at death. The ancient Celts believed that the spirit of the dead would rise up into the sapling planted above, which would grow and retain the essence of the departed one. Throughout Britain many cemeteries, particularly those situated near rivers, lakes or marshes, are often to be found lined with Willow trees to protect the spirits in place. The Willows connection with water links it directly with the moon goddess who is revered by contemporary witches and pagans alike. One old tradition concerning the Willow is still celebrated today by Romanian Gypsies. This is the festival of Green George which takes place on the 23rd of April. A man wearing a wicker frame made from the Willow represents the character of Green George which is then covered in greenery and vegetation from the land. This is symbolic of the Willows association with water that fertilizes the land bringing fruitfulness to the fields. On the eve of the festival and in a gay and lively manner, everything is prepared in readiness. A young Willow tree is cut down and re-erected at the place of the festivities, there it is dressed and adorned with garlands. That same night all the pregnant women assemble around the tree, and each places an article of clothing beneath it. The belief being that if a single leaf from the tree falls on a garment over night, its owner will be granted an easy child delivery by the Willows goddess. At dawn on the 23rd Green George appears in all his splendor and knocks three nails into the tree, removing them again, he then proceeds to the nearest river, lake or stream from whence the tree was cut and throws them into the water, this to awaken the goodwill of the waters spirits to their proceeding. Returning he collects the Willow tree and takes it back to the river, lake or stream and dips its branches and leaves in it until they are heavy with water, thus awakening the tree’s beneficial and fertile qualities. The water spirits and the Willow tree’s beneficial qualities evoked, all the communities animals, flocks and herds are led to Green George who raises the tree and shakes water onto them in blessing ensuring fertility for the coming year. This done the tree is taken back to the place of festivities and re-erected. Feasting, drinking and merriment then commences in thanks to the tree and water spirits. Magickal Uses: Willow bark has been used for its pain-relieving qualities since ancient times. The White Willow (Salix alba) contains salicin, which is converted to salicylic acid in the body. Salicylic acid is closely related to aspirin the synthetic drug that has displaced Willow bark from popular use. Willow bark reduces fever and relieves rheumatism, a common ailment in cold and damp regions like the British Isles. A decoction can be used for gum and tonsil inflammations and as a foot bath for sweaty feet. The bark is collected in the springtime being careful not to ring the tree or it will die. A decoction can be made by soaking 3 teaspoons (15ml) of the bark in a cup of cold water for 2 - 5 hours, then bring to the boil. Strain and take a wine glassful each day, a mouthful at a time. The bark can be dried, powdered and stored in an airtight container. Black Willow (Salix nigra) has black bark as opposed to the light greens of the White Willow. Its properties are much the same but was used in the past as an aphrodisiac and sexual sedative. The Goat Willow and Sallow Willow (Salix caprea) is used in very much in the same way as the White Willow, but an infusion of Sallow bark tea is recommended for indigestion, whooping cough and catarrh. It can also be used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Of old, strips of Willow were used for binding magical and sacred objects together. The popular Witches' Broom was traditionally made with an Ash handle and Birch twigs bound with Willow. Willow is one of the best water-divining woods, along with Hazel and Birch. Perhaps the most common magickal use of the Willow is the making of Wands, for all the Willow's qualities are naturally contained within the wood, though you may wish to charge or empower certain aspects of its qualities for specific uses. Use a piece of fresh Willow cut from the tree with appropriate reverence and ritual, or use a newly fallen piece which the tree has recently shed. You may wish to strip the bark off and carve the wand with runic symbols to associate it with particular uses. It is easier to carve fresh wood and then let it dry out, small twigs will dry out quickly and without cracking in a house, but it is better to let larger pieces of wood dry slowly in an outhouse or shed or even under a hedge. When it is dry it can be polished with several layers of beeswax to protect the wood, or you may prefer to leave it natural. Willow wands are used whenever there is a need to connect with intuition, dreams, seer-ship, visions and poetically inspired writing or images. They are also used to deal with emotional numbness or emotional excess, or where there are negative emotional feelings which need to be worked through. Like the wand, talismans and charms can be made in the same way, perhaps using the natural shape of the wood to suggest and inspire a carving. Talismans may be worn round the neck or as a brooch, or carried within a pouch and kept close. Like the wand, runic symbols can be carved on a talisman representative to their uses. The Willow has always been known as a tree of dreaming, inspiration and enchantment. It was associated in Celtic legend with poets and spells of fascination and binding. Our deep unconscious thoughts speak to us through our dreams, so if you have lost touch with your dreams or wish to increase their potency, place a piece of Willow under your pillow when you sleep. You will find your dreams will immediately become more vivid and meaningful. The Willow's weeping stance reflects its association with grief. By wearing a piece of Willow (as in the popular song "All around my hat I will wear the green Willow") a person will be able to access all the levels of their grief, and be able to move through these levels to gain healing and inner strength. The Willow tree is known by many folk names: Osier, Pussy Willow, Saille, Salicyn Willow, Saugh Tree, Tree of Enchantment, White Willow, Witches Aspirin, Withe and Withy. Its deity associations are with: Artemis, Ceres, Hecate, Persephone, Hera, Mercury, Belili and Belinus. Its gender is female. Its planetary ruler is the Moon. Its associated element is Water. The willow is used to attract the powers needed for such things as: Protection, Divination, Inspiration, Healing, Fertility, Love, Grief and Death, and anything to do with the element Water. Willow people (i.e. those born in March) are beautiful but full of melancholy, are attractive and very empathic, they like anything beautiful and tasteful and love to travel, they are dreamers and restless, capricious and honest, they are easily influenced but are not easy to live with being demanding, they have good intuition, but suffer in love and sometimes need to find an anchoring partner.

The Alder tree (Alnus glutinosa) is one of the sacred trees of Wicca/Witchcraft and also a member of the Birch tree family. In folklore the Alder is known as the 'King of the Waters' with the 'Willow' tree as it's Queen. This association is due to their natural habitat near lakes, rivers and streams. The Alder tree is native to the British Isles and continental Europe where it flourishes in temperate and cold climates. The leaves of the Alder are broadly ovate, stalked and usually smooth. It produces catkins (so named for their resemblance to cat’s-tails) that are formed in the autumn, the fruiting ones having scales rather like tiny fir cones). The tree’s flowers appear in early spring before the leaves are fully out and its woody nearly globular female catkins are its so-called berries. Alder trees are usually small in stature but can reach heights of 70 ft (21 meters) in perfect conditions. There are four stages of production on the Alder tree at any given time, the old cones of the previous year’s fruiting, the new year’s leaves or leaf-buds, and the new year’s male and female catkins. The tree matures at about 30 year’s of age at which time it is capable of producing a full crop of seeds. After this, it can live on to reach an age of about 150 years. It is also the only broadleaved tree to produce cones. To the ancients of old the Alder was particularly revered for it appeared to bleed like humans. When an Alder tree is felled its inner wood is white but gradually over time turns to a reddish-pink. The wood of the Alder has many uses. When young it is brittle and very easily worked but the more mature of its wood is tinted and veined. Due to the Alders resistance to water, in times gone by it was used in the construction of bridges, particularly the long heavy piles driven into the ground or sometimes under water to support it. This quality for long endurance under water also made it valuable for pumps, troughs and sluices for which purposes it is said to have been used in sixteenth-century Venice, as well as France and Holland. The roots and knots of the Alder furnished good material for cabinet-makers. These were used for making the clogs of old Lancashire mill-towns, however demand exceeded supply and Birch had to be used in its stead. It was also used for making carts and spinning wheels, bowls, spoons, wooden heels and herring-barrel staves etc. On the Continent it was largely used for cigar-boxes for which its reddish Cedar-like wood was well suited. After lying in a bog, the wood of the Alder has the color but not the hardness of Ebony. In the Highlands of Scotland this 'bog Alder' was used for making handsome chairs from which it became known as 'Scottish Mahogany'. The branches of the Alder made good charcoal and was a valuable commodity for making gunpowder. Dyers, tanners and leather dressers used its bark commercially and fishermen use it for making nets. In Celtic folklore the Alder is associated with the fairies and it was believed that doorways to the fairy realm were concealed within its trunk. The Alder was sacred to the god 'Bran' who carried a branch of it with him during the 'Battle of the Trees' saga, an old Celtic legend. Bran’s totem animal was the Raven which also became associated with the Alder. Ritual pipes and whistles were often made from Alder wood, many in the shape of the Raven. A Taliesin riddle once asked the question: “Why is the Alder purple?”, the answer is because Bran wore purple into battle. In some Norse and Irish legends the first man was formed from the Alder while the first women came from the Rowan. In the Ogham alphabet, the Druids allocated the letter “F” the third consonant to the Alder. Italian witches used to mix the sap from the Alder tree with that of the madder plant, a Eurasian plant (Rubia tinctorum of the family Rubiaceae) to produce red dyes. These were then used to color ribbons, cords and sashes for use in magick and ritual. Ritual bags made of wool and dyed red have been highly prized by Italian witches since classical times. Also in Italy the wood of the Alder was used to light the fires for the spring festival. In dyeing, the Alder’s bark is used as a foundation for blacks with the addition of copperas. Alone it dyes woollens a reddish color (Aldine Red). The Laplanders chew it and dye leathern garments with their saliva. The young shoots of the Alder dye yellow and with a little copper a yellowish-grey useful in the half-tints and shadows of flesh in tapestry. The shoots cut in March will dye cinnamon, and if dried and powdered produce a tawny shade. The fresh wood yields a pinkish-fawn dye and the catkins a green. The leaves have been used in tanning leather. They are clammy and if spread in a room are said to catch flea’s on their sticky glutinous surface. Magical and Medicinal uses: The bark and young shoots contain from 16 to 20 per cent of tannic acid but so much coloring matter that they are not very useful for tanning. This tannin differs from that of galls and oak-bark and does not yield glucose when acted upon by sulphuric acid, instead it resolves it into Aldine red and sugar. Alder acts as both a tonic and astringent. A decoction of the bark is useful to bathe swellings and inflammations especially of the throat and has been known to cure ague. Peasants on the Alps were reported to be cured of rheumatism by being covered with bags full of the heated leaves. Placing Alder leaves in your shoes will ease weary feet, useful for walkers and hikers. Of old, Alder leaves were collected in the morning with the dew still upon them making them sticky and gummy, these were then carried around the home attracting fleas and trapping the pests. Horses, cows, sheep and goats are said to eat Alder leaves but some say it is bad for horses as it turns their tongues black, swine refuse to eat it. The Alder tree is known by the folk names: King of the Woods and Scottish Mahogany. Its deity association is with Bran. Its planetary ruler is Venus and its associated elements are Fire and Water. The Alder is used to attract the powers needed for: Protection of self, Divination, Oracles, Healing and anything to do with the element Water. Astrologically Alder people (i.e. those who were born in the month of February) are like the Phoenix rebuilding him or herself after each defeat or set back. They have tendencies to be oracles being psychically aware, but also have to be careful not to abuse their gifts. They can be brutal in their frankness yet they are also kind. They might sometimes be in need of protection spiritually because others will envy what they have and try to use it or take it from them. As the Alder takes 30 years to mature so Alder people can be very immature acting and make rash poorly thought-through decisions for themselves.