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history paper over FBI and civil rights "When the Trailways bus arrived at its terminal in Birmingham an hour later on May 14, 1961 the Freedom Riders were greeted by about forty Klansmen and members of the far-right National States Rights party. Most were carrying baseball bats or chains. A few had lead pipes. Although the Federal Bureau of Investigation had alerted the Birmingham Police Department beforehand, not a single law enforcement officer was on hand. Before the unfortunate Peck, one of the Freedom Riders, was knocked out he stated,. "Before you get my brothers, you will have to kill me." In Montgomery, Alabama, John F. Kennedy's personal representative on the scene, John Seigenthaler was pulled from a rented car, dragged, and beaten after he tried to help two white Freedom riders. Seigenthaler lay on the sidewalk for twenty-five minutes before an ambulance arrived. While the ambulance drivers were boycotting and the Freedom Riders were being attacked, the Federal Bureau of Investigation stood across the street, taking notes, "for the specific purpose of observing and reporting the facts to the Department of Justice in order that the Department will have the benefit of objective observations'" In both of these examples the Federal Bureau of Investigation had known of the violence that was going to take place but did nothing to stop it. Hoover was particularly interested in the civil rights movement and because he wanted to slow the progression of the movement, Communism was the best available opportunity for Hoover to infiltrate civil rights organizations. J. Edgar Hoover did not feel that it was his departments duty to engage in civil rights protection or in protecting the rights of members of the civil rights movement, but Hoover did feel that it was his departments duty to try and subvert to progression of groups related to the civil rights movement, by claiming they were communist fronts. Hoover was quoted as saying: "This memo reminds me vividly of those I received when Castro took over Cuba: You contend then that Castro and his cohorts were not communists and not influenced by communists. Time also proved you wrong. I for one can't ignore the memos re King, et al as having only an infinitesimal effect on the efforts to exploit the American Negro by the Communists." As contradictory as Hoover's explanation about civil rights sounds, it is the way that the Federal Bureau of Investigation reacted to the wants and needs of the African American during the part of the Cold War that Hoover was director of the FBI. The major works written on the Federal Bureau of Investigation's COINTELPRO program in relation to the civil rights movement primarily concede that the programs mission was to destroy the advancement of the Black American in the name of stopping the spread of Communism during the Cold War period. The COINTELPRO program was initiated in 1956 to provide a surveillance mechanism against the Communist movement. Its primary goal was to locate, infiltrate, and try to cause dissention among the ranks in an effort to destroy the group. Under Hoover the COINTELPRO program investigated many organizations and individuals under the impression they were involved in Communist activities. It was abruptly terminated in 1971 without much notice. The most prominent historian, Kenneth O'Reilly, that has written on this subject, felt that it was not the Federal Bureau of Investigation that wanted the destruction of the civil rights movement but higher governmental officials that wanted the end of the movement. As for other works of scholarship on the civil rights movement and the COINTELPRO programs there is nothing written that connects the two important actions together during the time of the movement. "The Bureau's decision to avoid protecting civil rights and to spy on African Americans were more in reaction to directives from the White House and the Justice Department than results of its own policy." This idea that the leaders of the Federal Government were more interested in ruining the civil rights movement than the Federal Bureau of Investigation does not cover the whole scope of the actions taken by the Bureau in order to fulfill its task. There was more to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's treatment of the members of the movement than orders from higher up the bureaurocratic chain. Hoover himself was not interested in a change in the structure of the American way of life. Hoover was just as interested in subverting the civil rights movement more so than the White House in order to preserve the status quo. This lack of scholarship on the civil rights movement in relation to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's COINTELPRO program is a subject that needs to be addressed more in order to help show a more balanced version of the historiography. O'Reilly tells us a great deal about the way that the civil rights movement was affected by the COINTELPRO programs, but he leaves out important information about who was the most responsible. He passes the actions off as White House orders, when in truth it was Hoover who initiated the programs more vile aspects like using the thoughts and feelings of the southern distaste of African Americans to rouse them up against the civil rights movement. Not that much help was needed for the southern bigot to rally against "race agitators like Martin Luther King Jr. and rip off the mask and reveal the real purpose behind his anti-American activities." This essay intends to look at how COINTELPRO was used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, under Hoover's direction, to try to thwart the progress of the civil rights movement and its members under the ruse that they were infiltrated by Communists that wanted to destroy the American way of life during the 1960's and 1970's. By using files from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, literature about the surveillance techniques and observations from Federal Bureau of Investigation field agents, newspaper articles, and scholarly works from other historians to show first, how J. Edgar Hoover and the Federal Bureau of Investigation used their power to discredit, harass, and try to destroy the civil rights movement without direct orders from the Justice department, as O'Reilly had suggested. Lastly, to show that the Justice department and the White House was not as interested in destroying the civil rights movement as the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the idea that O'Reilly tries to prove in his work. Actions by civil rights leaders like Paul Robeson helped Hoover push his agenda against the civil rights leaders. "Robeson continues to support Communist front programs lending his presence and influence to various meetings." This was one of the primary reasons that COINTELPRO came into being in order to slow or stop the influences that popular African Americans could have on their peers. These actions show that Hoover and the Federal Bureau of Investigation were more responsible than the White House and Justice department in the operations of COINTELPRO to try to cause a decline in the advancement of the civil rights movement by using the communist threat that the Cold War made such a high priority. Hoover vs. The Grassroots "Mister Hoover, said Agent Murtagh, was able over a period of nearly fifty years to bring in thousands of carefully selected agent personnel who were as politically disposed to the right as he was…The result, because of the way he used those agents, was an unbalanced, damaging influence on American Culture." Hoover's ideas about the advancement of African Americans can be related back to the time and area he grew up in. His roots were firmly planted in the South during the time of Jim Crow and the idea of segregation and the degraded position of the African American were to stay the same as he always knew it. As Hoover climbed the law enforcement ladder, finally into the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, he kept his views about minorities in tact. At the grassroots level of the country, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, using its COINTELPRO program, would treat the people that were believed to be affiliated with the Communist movement with extreme prejudice. This included the men and women involved in the civil rights movement. Hoover felt that if there could be a connection made between this movement and Communism, then he could destroy the movement and keep the status quo of American culture where it was. Hoover chose the cover of Communism more often than not when attacking opponents and people that posed problems to him and his department. Hoover investigated most organizations that were in favor of the advancement of the African American. One of the groups that was investigated was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The files on the COINTELPRO program shows that the Federal Bureau of Investigation set forth a national program to infiltrate the NAACP. Another tactic that Hoover used was to investigate prominent members of the NAACP in order to discredit the movement. One member that was investigated was the most important African American player in Major League Baseball at the time. Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in baseball in 1942. He was investigated and went before the House Committee of Un-American Activities to testify. His file contains mostly the threats he received for breaking the color barrier in baseball, but it also includes actions taken by Robinson in the civil rights movement. When Hoover felt that popular actress Jean Seberg was a threat because of her ties to the Black Panther party, he had her publicly demoralized because "it is felt the possible publication of Seberg's "plight"(unmarried pregnancy) could cause her embarrassment and serve to cheapen her image with the general public." This type of action was taken by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to try to ruin reputations and lives of people that were considered threatening to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Within the civil rights movement there were many men that were attacked by the Federal Bureau of Investigations COINTELPRO program, not for purposes of legal digressions but for the purpose of destroying the progression of the advancement of civil rights. "Some of the Bureau's practices under the program were abhorrent in a free society." The Federal Bureau of Investigation attacked men like Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm Little, and Paul Robeson by accusing them of being associated with Communist front groups. For the sake of this argument we will not look at Malcolm Little or Paul Robeson a great deal because they were involved with the Communist party in some way or form. To outline some of the actions taken by the Federal Bureau of Investigation against some of the members of the civil rights movement, it is important to show that the treatment of the black men in the civil rights movement was not isolated to one player but to most of the major players in the movement. Men like Malcolm Little, also known as Malcolm X, and Paul Robeson were prominent members of the civil rights movement. These men did have relations with the Communist movement and were publicly stated as saying so. The COINTELPRO program used its power to investigate these men because of their Communist connections and they had a great deal of latitude to do so. Malcolm Little was quoted in Federal Bureau of Investigation files as saying, "I have always been Communist. I tired to enlist in the Japanese Army last war and now they will never draft or accept me in the U.S. Army." Hoover's agents were very skilled in wiretapping and survailing their targets and passing the information back to the Director. For Malcolm Little the Federal Bureau of Investigation had little hard work to do. He was a convicted criminal who was very militant and aggressive towards the white man. He became the leader of the Black Panther party that caused a major stir in the government. His past digressions and public admission of having Communist ideals made him an easy target for Hoover's agents. As for Paul Robeson, he was a prominent actor that had a Communist leaning that also made him an easy target for the COINTELPRO program. With his background as a popular singer, actor, and speaker the Federal Bureau of Investigation felt that he as one man that could place the Communist ideal in the eyes of the country by a man that was a well respected African American. One of the main reasons that the Federal Bureau of Investigation felt that Robeson was a Communist member or sympathetic to the Communist cause because of a film entitled "Native Land" that Robeson had help narrate. The film was a Communist production for the Communist population. Martin Luther King Jr. was a man that was never proved to be involved in the Communist movement but the Federal Bureau of Investigation, but it did not stop them from starting investigations and harassment into the life of the man. Hoover had an extreme prejudice against King and when the chance came up to try to discredit him, Hoover jumped on it. When Hoover requested the information that the Bureau had acquired on Martin Luther King Jr. as of May 22, 1961, he was told by Alex Rosen, the Assistant Director of the General Investigation Division, that King had not been investigated. Hoover responded with a simple question, "Why not?" The infatuation that Hoover had with King was in part to his racial upbringing, but it also had to do with an award that Hoover thought he deserved that King won. "In the Federal Bureau of Investigation's oppression of civil rights activists and liberals, Hoover's personal venom comes into focus. His rage over the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Martin Luther King Jr., was the greater because he himself felt he deserved the prize." His personal vendetta against King was what started the persecution of the vocal civil rights activist. Some of the activities that were put in place to disrupt King in his endeavors for civil rights ranged from comical to downright illegal. Aside form the usual wiretaps, physical surveillance, and informant information that was used for almost every subject the Federal Bureau of Investigation had a file on, there were other tactics that were used. The comical included a "plan to inject the activist's oranges with powerful laxatives" in order to disrupt proceedings. To more serious actions like smearing King as a "sexual switch hitter, or bisexual." The actions that were involved in smear campaigns were a popular tactic against King by Hoover and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The campaign to ruin the reputation of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. remained a priority to Hoover. His plans included using the Communist front as a means to investigate King. Hoover did not obtain approval for his attack on King; he totally ignored the Justice Department, who gave permission for the surveillance of possible targets, when the Federal Bureau of Investigation began to start its files against King. The information that was most used to try to destroy King was that of his sexual exploits. By King's own admission, "I'm away from home twenty-five to twenty-seven days a month, and fucking is a form of anxiety reduction." Sex was one of the regressions that King had and Hoover was primed to take full advantage of that fact. Hoover would take every advantage to try to discredit King and when he acquired audio surveillance from one of his field agents about an encounter that involved King and a lady friend, which was not his wife, engaged in sexual activities Hoover was quick to get it into the hands people that could discredit King. Something else that Hoover did with this audio surveillance was to grossly exaggerate the actual events and players in the clip. "It featured King with hundred-dollar-a-night prostitutes, committing sexual acts in front of eight, nine, ten, eleven men gathered around the bed, naked, drinking Black Russians." It is particularly interesting to see how, through an audio surveillance clip that it could be figured that these men were naked drinking Black Russians, which seems to exude Communism infiltration into the civil rights movement. It was later reported in the New York Times newspaper that a recording was sent to Mrs. King of Dr. King and the night described above in order to discredit him. The harassment went so far that the Federal Bureau of Investigation was even found to have tried to elicit a suicide attempt out of King in order to quiet him. The idea was to send King a letter stating all the information about his personal life, which was lined out in this letter, would be sent to the public through news organizations unless he committed suicide. "King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significance. You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy, abnormal fraudulent self is bared to the nation." This action was one of the harshest taken against King by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and like the others was not something that the Justice Department would have agreed with. It was because Hoover had an extreme hatred for King and wanted him out of the national spotlight by any means necessary. These actions taken against these men, but mostly Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., were not only deplorable but in most cases illegal. Since the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation was reporting to the Attorney General and supposed to be getting approval for tactics against subjects under surveillance it can be clearly pointed out that the actions taken by J. Edgar Hoover were of his own volition, perpetuated by his power and popularity within the nation, and had no approval from the Justice Department. Hoover went his own way with COINTELPRO to eradicate personal enemies and to satisfy ideals of holding the African American in the Jim Crow Era. The Executive Branch Vs. The Grassroots Mr. O'Reilly's opinion that the Justice department and the White House of the government were the primary instigators in the COINTELPRO program and the Federal Bureau of Investigation's implementation of that program. In reality, the Justice department and the White House had little to no knowledge of the Bureau's program. A public report done by Attorney General Saxbe in 1974 stated that the Federal Bureau of Investigation's secret counterintelligence operations known as COINTELPRO, was unknown to the Justice department, but it could not be confirmed that the Justice department or White House did not have any knowledge. The reality is that the President, at his time John F. Kennedy, and Justice department, at his time the Attorney General was Robert Kennedy, of the government had no interest in trying to stop the civil rights movement. They were more interested in attracting the vote of the African American come election time, and if the politicians that were trying to get elected were found to be involved in the attempted destruction of the advancement of the African American then they would lose those possible votes. "Kennedy voted for every civil rights bill that came before him in Congress because he thought discrimination, segregation was stupid and irrational, but denying the right to vote was a scandal." The President and those in his direct control like the Attorney General, was pushing for the Federal Bureau of Investigation to not only protect civil rights leaders, but also investigate civil rights violations of the protesters. Another major reason that the Justice department and White House did not want to thwart the progress of the civil rights movement was that the image of segregation made the idea of democracy a farce in the eyes of the rest of the world. Even as far back as 1946, the idea that "the existence of discrimination against minority groups in this country had an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries." The idea that the United States was the place where everyone was free, or that ideology was what was being portrayed by the United States to the rest of the world, and then there is this whole group of people that were being discriminated against. The rest of the world felt that the United States was hypocritical in its ways because of that glaring discrepancy in its ideology. To improve the image of the United States the leaders wanted to see that the African American was at least being portrayed as winning their fight for equality. "The Kennedy administration also saw repression and violence as internationally de-legitimating." The White House and Attorney General felt that if the world could not see the United States as truly democratic then the other countries would not take United States foreign policy seriously. In order to make the country look more respectable abroad, the Justice department and the White House had to make the civil rights movement progress in the eyes of the world. This argument is one of the main reasons that Kenneth O'Reilly's idea that the President and Justice department of the government was more responsible for COINTELPRO programs is flawed. If the either the President or the Attorney General tried to stop the civil rights movement it would be detrimental to the country as a whole, and with the popularity that Hoover had in the country he had carte blanch to put any program in place he saw fit. With that in mind, the argument that the President and the Justice department was the primary instigator in the COINTELPRO program does not hold as much weight as O'Reilly puts into it. There is proof that the Attorney General, Robert Kennedy during this time, approved wiretaps and bugging of civil rights leaders, but his intentions were to make sure that communist infiltration had not occurred within these groups. The intentions of Robert Kennedy was to make these groups appear as credible as possible or have them exposed. It was Hoover's intention to destroy the group no matter the findings. Other than foreign policy concerns, the White House and the Justice department of the United States government it seemed wanted to see the succession of the African American depending on the area in which they were campaigning. For instance, "John Kennedy sent legislation (later to become the Civil Rights Act of 1964) to Congress, but fearing racial violence, he worked behind the scenes, away from the easily offended Southern audience." There is nothing that comes easy, and the rights of the African American according to the President was no exception. The Kennedy presidency pushed civil rights legislation slowly due to the fact it was not the top of the agenda that was most important to John Kennedy. Even though Kennedy felt that other programs were more important at times, his work caused the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to be signed into law after Kennedy's assassination. Its mission was: "To enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes." That said Kennedy did want to progress the civil rights movement, he just was not putting his agenda on the line in order to get the African American the rights that they deserved until he passed what he felt was the primary goal in his Presidency. The major question here would have to be why would, as O'Reilly speculated, the President and Attorney General want to ruin the civil rights movement and then work so hard to pass legislation that helped the African American gain more civil rights? The answer is never simple, but one idea is that the President or the Justice department was not interested in slowing, or stopping, the civil rights movement in the same way that the Federal Bureau of Investigation was interested in slowing the movement. The only way the President and the Attorney General was interested in stopping the civil rights movement by conceding the rights that the African American was asking for. This idea is in direct conflict with the idea that it was the White House and the Attorney General that were the main players behind the COINTELPRO program. "Now, in five minutes, tick off the ten things that a President ought to do to clean up this civil rights mess." Actions taken by the President would also suggest that there was little interest in disrupting the progress of the civil rights movement. Actions that would help to progress the advancement of the African American and not work to destroy the movement included protection of the civil rights leaders and using presidential power to progress the movement. These types of efforts were not characteristic of an entity that was interested in stopping the progression of the civil rights movement. In fact, the actions taken by the Justice department and the President show a sincere effort to help the movement. When Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was set to arrive in Montgomery, Alabama around May 21, 1961, right after the Freedom Rides incident there, Robert Kennedy asked for protection of Dr. King by the National Guard. When he was told that the National Guard could not guarantee the safety of Dr. King, Kennedy wanted to speak with the general of the troops in order to hear a "general of the United States Army say he can not protect Martin Luther King." even though the National guard was in attendance Kennedy sent fifty federal marshals to escort King, "making him look just like he was the president of the United States." When Dr. King and Robert Kennedy spoke after an incident in the First Baptist Church in Montgomery where the Klu Klux Klan and states rights groups set an automobile ablaze and were trying to burn the church down before the Federal Marshals arrived to intervene, it was King that was angry that the government allowed the violence to continue. Kennedy responded to King, "Now Reverend, do not tell me that. You know just as well that if not for the United States marshals you would be as dead as Kelsey's nuts right now." The relationship between Martin Luther King and both the President and the Attorney General of the government went further than just protection. There were instances where it seemed as though there was almost a personal relationship between King and the Kennedy's. After the Freedom Riders were arrested in Jackson, Mississippi, King received a call from President Kennedy in order to talk about the movement and the plans of Dr. King. In this conversation King is noted as stating that he was deeply appreciative of the Kennedy Administration's actions in the civil rights movement, but that the peaceful demonstrations would continue. The protection of King is in direct contradiction of the actions taken by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in regards to Dr King. These examples show clearly that the Executive branch of the United States government could not be paired with the actions of Hoover and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The two entities were as far apart on policy concerning the civil rights movement as Americanism was in regards to Communism and the COINTELPRO programs. A report done by the Attorney General in 1975 stated that at "least three and possible all five Attorneys general from 1958 until 1969 had been told of "certain aspects" of COINTELPRO, but not by that name." and Hoover made it clear that "Under no circumstances should the existence of the program be made known outside the Bureau." Again it was Hoover and not the Justice department that pushed the COINTELPRO actions against the civil rights movement. There is little to no evidence that Robert Kennedy or John F. Kennedy tried to destroy the civil rights movement, but there is a great deal of evidence that points to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and J. Edgar Hoover being the primary perpetrators of the COINTELPRO programs. Conclusion Kenneth O'Reilly wrote, "The Bureau's decision to avoid protecting civil rights and to spy on blacks were more in reaction to directives from the White House and the Justice Department than results of its own policy." His theory was that the Justice department and the White House of the United States government was the responsible entity in the operations of the COINTELPRO programs conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The evidence that is presented in this essay proves that the Justice department and the White House of the government was more interested in the advancement of the African American in order to project the idea of a true democracy to the rest of the world. It was the actions of Hoover that were detrimental to the civil rights movement. His orders of spying, impeding, and lack of support for investigating civil rights violations were not ordered by the Justice department and the President but out of his own personal vendetta against the African American and more specifically Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. "All COINTELPRO programs, according to the summary (report on the COINTELPRO program by the Justice department done in 1974) "were specifically authorized by former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover." Files indicate Hoover consulted no one in the Justice department or the White House." The COINTELPRO program was terminated on April 28, 1971 in a memorandum by Hoover, but from 1956 until that time the havoc that was caused by the COINTELPRO program left a lot of scars among its victims. As previously stated, there was little to no knowledge about the program within the White House and the Justice department and with the record that the Kennedy's had with pursuing positive gains for the civil rights movement there can be little doubt that approval for such destructive programs would have been tolerated if known. Some people's opinions were that Kennedy had actually reigned in Hoover and his programs. "Clayton, reporter for the Washington Post, alleges the Justice department did not get careful investigative work out of the FBI in civil rights cases in 1960, but now they do." The COINTELPRO programs were J. Edgar Hoover's way of trying to expose and subvert the civil rights movement from making substantial gains in order to keep America in the era of Jim Crow laws in the south and tolerance of Jim Crow in the north. Simply put, the illegal COINTELPRO programs was not a ploy by the White House and the Justice department to destroy the civil rights movement, it was a program by an overzealous director who wanted to keep the African American in his place by giving his agents "special tactics to prevent these groups from converting young African Americans to the civil rights movement." Hoover did his best, but he did not have to power that the civil rights movement generated or the backing of his superiors in order to stop the juggernaut that gave the African American the freedom that the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation entitled them. Bibliography Primary Sources Anderson, Jack. "The FBI and Radical Groups." The Washington Post. Nov 17, 197. Pg. C7. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 Crewdson, John. "F.B.I. Reportedly Harassed Radicals After Spy Program Ended." The New York Times. March 23, 1975. Pg. 33. Crewdson, John. "Saxbe Says Top Officials Had Some Knowledge of F.B.I.s Drive to Disrupt Various Political Groups." The New York Times, Nov 19, 1974. Pg 27. Federal Bureau of Investigation File pg 113 FBI file on Paul Robeson dated 11/17,18,19/1942. File #100-25857 FBI file on Malcolm Little dated 3/20:4/1,3,6/1953. File #100-399321 Memo to Hoover from the New York field office concerning Robinson's activities with the civil rights movement. Dated 6/15/1966. FBI file on Paul Robeson. Dated 4/5/46. File #100-25857 EED Crewdson, John. "Light on the Dark Side of Hoover's F.B.I." The New York Times. Nov 24, 1974. Pg. 207. Horrock, Nicholas. "Ex-Officials Say F.B.I. Harassed Dr. King to Stop His Criticism." The NewYork Times. Mar 9,1975. Pg. 40. "Saxbe to disclose a study of Secret Hoover Tactics." New York Times. Nov 16, 1974. Pg 23. Memo from Mr. Deloach to Mr. A. Jones. "article "Kennedy top rated as justice boss". Written 8-24-64. FBI files concerning Robert Kennedy. Secondary Sources Brands, H.W. The Devil We Knew: Americans and the Cold War. Oxford Universtiy Press, New York. 1993. Churchill, Ward and Jim Vander Wall. The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Domestic Dissent. South End Press, Boston, Mass. 1990. Garrow, David. Federal Bureau of Investigation Harassment and Federal Bureau of Investigation historiography: analyzing Informants and Measuring the Effects. The Public Historian, Vol. 10, No. 4. (Autumn, 1988). O'Reilly, Kenneth. "The FBI and the Civil Rights Movement during the Kennedy Years- -From the Freedom Rides to Albany" The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 54, No. 2. (May, 1988). O'Reilly, Kenneth. Racial Matters: The FBI's Secret file on Black America, 1960-1972. New York, The Free Press. 1989. Riddlesperger, James W. Jr and Donald W. Jackson. Presidential Leadership and Civil Rights Policy. Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn. 1995. Robinson, Cedric. Black Movements in America. Routledge: New York. 1997. Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Co, Boston. 1978. Skrentny, John David. The Effect of the Cold War on African-American Civil Rights: America and the World Audience, 1945-1968. Theory and Society, Vol. 27, No. 2. (Apr., 1998). Summers, Anthony. Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1993.